14

Circular functions

Objectives
I To use radians and degrees for the measurement of angle.
I To convert radians to degrees, and vice versa.
I To define the circular functions sine, cosine and tangent.
I To explore the symmetry properties of circular functions.
I To find standard exact values of circular functions.
I To solve equations involving circular functions.
I To understand and sketch the graphs of circular functions.

Following on from our study of polynomial, exponential and logarithmic functions, we meet
a further three important functions in this chapter. Again we use the notation developed in
Chapter 5 for describing functions and their properties.
You have studied trigonometry in earlier years, mainly for angles between 0◦ and 90◦ . In this
chapter we see how the trigonometry you have studied may be extended to form three new
functions: sine, cosine and tangent. We will see that the first two of these functions have the
real numbers as their domain, and the third the real numbers without the odd multiples of π2 .
An important property of these three functions is that they are periodic. That is, they each
repeat their values in regular intervals or periods. In general, a function f is periodic if there
is a positive constant a such that f (x + a) = f (x). The sine and cosine functions each have
period 2π, while the tangent function has period π.
The sine and cosine functions are used to model wave motion, and are therefore central to the
application of mathematics to any problem in which periodic motion is involved – from the
motion of the tides and ocean waves to sound waves and modern telecommunications.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14A Measuring angles in degrees and radians 475

14A Measuring angles in degrees and radians

The diagram shows a unit circle, i.e. a circle of radius 1 unit. y
The circumference of the unit circle = 2π × 1
= 2π units 1 B
Thus, the distance in an anticlockwise direction around the
circle from
C A
π x
A to B = units –1 0 1
2
A to C = π units
3π –1 D
A to D = units
2

Definition of a radian y
In moving around the circle a distance of 1 unit from A
to P, the angle POA is defined. The measure of this angle is 1 P
1 radian.
1 unit
c
One radian (written 1 ) is the angle subtended at the 1c x
centre of the unit circle by an arc of length 1 unit. –1 O A 1

–1

Note: Angles formed by moving anticlockwise around the unit circle are defined as positive;
those formed by moving clockwise are defined as negative.

Degrees and radians

The angle, in radians, swept out in one revolution of a circle is 2πc .
2πc = 360◦
∴ πc = 180◦

180◦ πc
∴ 1c = or 1◦ =
π 180

Example 1
Convert 30◦ to radians.
Solution Explanation
πc
1◦ =
180
30 × π πc π
∴ 30◦ = = Multiply by and simplify by cancelling.
180 6 180

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 476 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Example 2
πc
Convert to degrees.
4
Solution Explanation
◦
180
1c =
π
πc π × 180 180
∴ = = 45◦ Multiply by and simplify by cancelling.
4 4×π π

Note: Often the symbol for radians, c , is omitted.

π πc
For example, the angle 45◦ is written as rather than .
4 4

Using the TI-Nspire

To convert 32 degrees to radians, enter 32◦ I Rad
as shown.
 The degree symbol ◦ can be found using ¹
or the symbols palette ( ctrl k ).
 The I Rad command can be found in the
catalog ( k 1 R ).
To convert 2 radians to degrees, enter 2r I DD
as shown.
 The radian symbol r can be found using
¹ or the symbols palette ( ctrl k ).
 The I DD command can be found in the catalog ( k 1 D ).

Note: If the calculator is in radian mode, you can convert 32◦ to radians by simply typing
32◦ then enter . If the calculator is in degree mode, type 2r then enter .

Using the Casio ClassPad

To convert 32 degrees to radians:
 Ensure your calculator is in radian mode (with Rad
in the status bar at the bottom of the main screen).
 Enter 32◦ and tap EXE . The degree symbol ◦ is
found in the Math1 keyboard.
 The answer can be displayed exactly, as shown,
or highlight the answer and tap , to convert to
decimal.
To convert 2 radians to degrees:
 Ensure your calculator is in degree mode (Deg).
 Enter 2r and tap . The radian symbol r is found
EXE
in the Math1 keyboard.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14A 14A Measuring angles in degrees and radians 477

Summary 14A
 One radian (written 1c ) is the angle subtended at the centre of the unit circle by an arc
of length 1 unit.
 To convert:
π 180
• degrees to radians, multiply by • radians to degrees, multiply by .
180 π

Exercise 14A

Example 1 1 Express the following angles in radian measure in terms of π:

a 60◦ b 144◦ c 240◦ d 330◦ e 420◦ f 480◦

Example 2 2 Express, in degrees, the angles with the following radian measures:
2π 5π 7π
a b c d 0.9π
3 6 6
5π 9π 11π
e f g h 1.8π
9 5 9
Use a calculator to convert the following angles from radians to degrees:

CAS
3
a 0.6 b 1.89 c 2.9 d 4.31
e 3.72 f 5.18 g 4.73 h 6.00

4 Use a calculator to express the following in radian measure:

a 38◦ b 73◦ c 107◦ d 161◦
e 84.1◦ f 228◦ g 136.4◦ h 329◦

5 Express, in degrees, the angles with the following radian measures:

π
a − b −4π c −3π d −π
3
5π 11π 23π 23π
e f − g h −
3 6 6 6
6 Express each of the following in radian measure in terms of π:
a −360◦ b −540◦ c −240◦ d −720◦ e −330◦ f −210◦

7 a On a set of axes, draw a unit circle centred at the origin and indicate the position on
the unit circle corresponding to each of the following:
π 3π 5π 7π
i ii iii iv
4 4 4 4
b On a set of axes, draw a unit circle centred at the origin and indicate the position on
the unit circle corresponding to each of the following:
π π 2π 4π
i ii − iii iv
3 3 3 3
c On a set of axes, draw a unit circle centred at the origin and indicate the position on
the unit circle corresponding to each of the following:
π 7π 13π 17π
i ii − iii iv
6 6 6 6

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 478 Chapter 14: Circular functions

14B Defining circular functions: sine and cosine

Consider the unit circle. y

The position of point P on the circle can be described by 1

P(θ)
relating the angle θ to the Cartesian coordinates x and y.
The point P on the circle corresponding to an angle θ is 1 y
written P(θ). θc
x
The x-coordinate of P(θ) is determined by the angle θ. –1 0 x 1
Similarly, the y-coordinate of P(θ) is determined by the
angle θ. So we can define two functions, called sine and
cosine, as follows: –1

The x-coordinate of P(θ) is given by x = cosine θ, for θ ∈ R.

The y-coordinate of P(θ) is given by y = sine θ, for θ ∈ R.

These functions are usually written in an y

abbreviated form as follows:
1 P(θ) = (cos θ, sin θ)
x = cos θ
y = sin θ
sinθ
Hence the coordinates of P(θ) are (cos θ, sin θ). θ
x
Note: Adding 2π to the angle results in a return –1 0 1
cos θ
to the same point on the unit circle. Thus
cos(2π + θ) = cos θ and sin(2π + θ) = sin θ.
–1

Example 3
Evaluate sin π and cos π.
Solution
After moving through an angle of π, the position is P(π) = (−1, 0).
∴ cos π = −1 and sin π = 0

Example 4
 3π   π
Evaluate sin − and cos − .
2 2
Solution Explanation
 3π   3π 
sin − =1 The point P − has coordinates (0, 1).
2 2
 π  π
cos − = 0 The point P − has coordinates (0, −1).
2 2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14B 14B Defining circular functions: sine and cosine 479

Example 5
 5π   7π 
Evaluate sin and sin .
2 2
Solution
 5π     π π
sin = sin 2 12 π = sin 2π + = sin =1
2 2 2
 7π     3π   3π 
sin = sin 3 12 π = sin 2π + = sin = −1
2 2 2

Example 6
 9π 
Evaluate sin and cos(27π).
2
Solution
 9π   π π
sin = sin 4π + = sin =1 cos(27π) = cos(26π + π) = cos π = −1
2 2 2

Summary 14B y
 P(θ) = (cos θ, sin θ)
1 P(θ)
 cos(2π + θ) = cos θ and sin(2π + θ) = sin θ
π
 If an angle is an odd multiple of , then its sine is sin θ
2 θ
x
either 1 or −1, and its cosine is zero. –1 0 1
π cos θ
 If an angle is an even multiple of , then its sine is zero,
2
and its cosine is either 1 or −1. –1

Exercise 14B

Example 3 1 For each of the following angles, t, determine the values of sin t and cos t:
Example 4 3π 3π 5π
a t=0 b t= c t=− d t=
Example 5 2 2 2
9π 7π
Example 6
e t = −3π f t= g t= h t = 4π
2 2
Evaluate using your calculator. (Check that your calculator is in radian mode.)
CAS

2
a sin 1.9 b sin 2.3 c sin 4.1 d cos 0.3
e cos 2.1 f cos(−1.6) g sin(−2.1) h sin(−3.8)

3 For each of the following angles, θ, determine the values of sin θ and cos θ:
5π 27π 9π
a θ = 27π b θ=− c θ= d θ=−
2 2 2
11π
e θ= f θ = 57π g θ = 211π h θ = −53π
2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 480 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14C

14C Another circular function: tangent

Again consider the unit circle. B
If we draw a tangent to the unit circle at A, then y C (1, y)
the y-coordinate of C, the point of intersection
of the extension of OP and the tangent, is called
1 P(θ)
tangent θ (abbreviated to tan θ).
tanθ
By considering the similar triangles OPD
sin θ
and OCA:
tan θ sin θ θ A
= x
1 cos θ –1 O D 1
cos θ
sin θ
∴ tan θ =
cos θ
Note that tan θ is undefined when cos θ = 0. –1
π 3π 5π
Hence tan θ is undefined when θ = ± , ± , ± , . . .
2 2 2
The domain of tan is R \ { θ : cos θ = 0 }.

Example 7
Evaluate using a calculator. (Give answers to two decimal places.)
a tan 1.3 b tan 1.9 c tan(−2.8) d tan 59◦ e tan 138◦

Solution Explanation
a tan 1.3 = 3.60 Don’t forget that your calculator must be in radian mode.
b tan 1.9 = −2.93 cos 1.9 is negative.
c tan(−2.8) = 0.36 Both cos(−2.8) and sin(−2.8) are negative, so tan is positive.
d tan 59◦ = 1.66 Calculate in degree mode.
e tan 138◦ = −0.90

Exercise 14C

1 Evaluate:
 7π   5π   π
a tan π b tan(−π) c tan d tan(−2π) e tan f tan −
2 2 2
Use a calculator to find correct to two decimal places:
CAS

Example 7 2
a tan 1.6 b tan(−1.2) c tan 136◦ d tan(−54◦ )
e tan 3.9 f tan(−2.5) g tan 239◦

3 For each of the following values of θ, find tan θ:

a θ = 180◦ b θ = 360◦ c θ=0
◦ ◦
d θ = −180 e θ = −540 f θ = 720◦

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14D Symmetry properties of circular functions 481

14D Symmetry properties of circular functions

The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into y
four quadrants. The quadrants can be numbered,
anticlockwise from the positive direction of the Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
x-axis, as shown.
x
Using symmetry, we can determine relationships 0
between the circular functions for angles in
different quadrants. Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4

Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
By symmetry:
sin(π – θ) = b = sin θ
cos(π – θ) = –a = –cos θ
b
tan(π – θ) = –a = –tan θ
(0, b)
P(π – θ) P(θ) = (cos θ, sin θ)
= (a, b)
(–a, 0)
θ
0
(a, 0)

P(π + θ) P(2π – θ)
(0, –b)

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
sin(π + θ) = –b = –sin θ sin(2π – θ) = –b = –sin θ
cos(π + θ) = –a = –cos θ cos(2π – θ) = a = cos θ
–b tan(2π – θ) = –b
tan(π + θ) = –a = tan θ a = –tan θ

Note: These relationships are true for all values of θ.

Signs of circular functions

Using these symmetry properties, the signs of sin, cos and tan for the four quadrants can be
summarised as follows:

y
1st quadrant all are positive (A)
2nd quadrant sin is positive (S)
S A
3rd quadrant tan is positive (T) x
4th quadrant cos is positive (C) T C

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 482 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14D

Negative of angles y
By symmetry: 1
cos(−θ) = cos θ P(θ)

sin(−θ) = − sin θ θ
x
− sin θ –1 0 –θ 1
tan(−θ) = = − tan θ
cos θ
P(– θ)
–1

Example 8
If sin x = 0.6, find the value of:
a sin(π − x) b sin(π + x) c sin(2π − x) d sin(−x)

Solution
a sin(π − x) b sin(π + x) c sin(2π − x) d sin(−x)
= sin x = − sin x = − sin x = − sin x
= 0.6 = −0.6 = −0.6 = −0.6

Example 9
If cos x◦ = 0.8, find the value of:
a cos(180 − x)◦ b cos(180 + x)◦ c cos(360 − x)◦ d cos(−x)◦

Solution
a cos(180 − x)◦ b cos(180 + x)◦ c cos(360 − x)◦ d cos(−x)◦
= − cos x◦ = − cos x◦ = cos x◦ = cos x◦
= −0.8 = −0.8 = 0.8 = 0.8

Exercise 14D

Example 8 1 If sin θ = 0.42, cos x = 0.7 and tan α = 0.38, write down the values of:
a sin(π + θ) b cos(π − x) c sin(2π − θ)
d tan(π − α) e sin(π − θ) f tan(2π − α)
g cos(π + x) h cos(2π − x)

Example 9 2 If sin x◦ = 0.7, cos θ◦ = 0.6 and tan α◦ = 0.4, write down the values of:
a sin(180 + x)◦ b cos(180 + θ)◦ c tan(360 − α)◦
d cos(180 − θ)◦ e sin(360 − x)◦ f sin(−x)◦
g tan(360 + α)◦ h cos(−θ)◦

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14D 14D Symmetry properties of circular functions 483

π π
3 a If cos x = − cos and
< x < π, find the value of x.
6 2
π 3π
b If cos x = − cos and π < x < , find the value of x.
6 2
π 3π
c If cos x = cos and < x < 2π, find the value of x.
6 2
4 For the diagram shown, write down the values of: y
a a = cos(π − θ) 1 √3
2
, 2
b b = sin(π − θ) (a, b) π–θ
c c = cos(−θ)
θ
d d = sin(−θ) x
0 –θ
e tan(π − θ) 1
f tan(−θ) (c, d )

5 For the diagram shown, write down the values of: y

a d = sin(π + θ)
1 √3
b c = cos(π + θ)
–
2
, 2 θ
c tan(π + θ)
π+θ x
d sin(2π − θ)
e cos(2π − θ) 1
(c, d )

a For the diagram shown, use your calculator to find a and b y

CAS
6
correct to four decimal places.
b Hence find the values of c and d. (c, d) (a, b)
1
140°
c i Use your calculator to find cos 140◦ and sin 140◦ . 40° x
ii Write cos 140◦ in terms of cos 40◦ .

7 a If sin x◦ = sin 60◦ and 90◦ < x◦ < 180◦ , find the value of x.
b If sin x◦ = − sin 60◦ and 180◦ < x◦ < 270◦ , find the value of x.
c If sin x◦ = − sin 60◦ and −90◦ < x◦ < 0◦ , find the value of x.
d If cos x◦ = − cos 60◦ and 90◦ < x◦ < 180◦ , find the value of x.
e If cos x◦ = − cos 60◦ and 180◦ < x◦ < 270◦ , find the value of x.
f If cos x◦ = cos 60◦ and 270◦ < x◦ < 360◦ , find the value of x.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 484 Chapter 14: Circular functions

14E Values of circular functions

Circular functions and trigonometric ratios
For right-angled triangles:
O
sin θ =
H Hypotenuse, H Opposite side, O
A
cos θ = θ
H
O Adjacent side, A
tan θ =
A
Applying these trigonometric ratios to the right-angled y
triangle, OAB, in the unit circle:
1
O y B
sin θ = = =y
H 1
1 y
A x
cos θ = = =x θ
H 1 x
–1 0 x A 1
O y sin θ
tan θ = = =
A x cos θ

–1
π
For 0 < θ < , the functions sin, cos and tan defined by the trigonometric ratios agree with
2
the circular functions introduced in this chapter.

Exact values of circular functions

A calculator can be used to find the values of the circular functions for different values of θ.
For many values of θ, the calculator gives an approximation. We now consider some values
of θ such that sin, cos and tan can be calculated exactly.
π
Exact values for 0 (0◦ ) and (90◦ )
2
From the unit circle: y

sin 0◦ = 0 sin 90◦ = 1 1

cos 0◦ = 1 cos 90◦ = 0
sin θ
θ x
tan 0◦ = 0 tan 90◦ is undefined –1 0 cos θ 1

–1

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14E Values of circular functions 485

π π
Exact values for (30◦ ) and (60◦ )
6 3
Consider an equilateral triangle ABC of side√length 2 units. Using C
√
Pythagoras’ theorem in 4ACD gives CD = AC 2 − AD2 = 3.
√
◦ AD 1 ◦ CD 3
sin 30 = = sin 60 = = 30° 30°
AC 2 AC 2 2 2
√
CD 3 AD 1
◦
cos 30 = = cos 60◦ = =
AC 2 AC 2
√
AD 1 CD 3 √ 60° 60°
◦ ◦
tan 30 = = √ tan 60 = = = 3
CD 3 AD 1 A 1 D 1 B

π
Exact values for (45◦ )
4 √ √
For the triangle ABC shown on the right, we have AC = 12 + 12 = 2. C
BC 1
sin 45◦ = = √
AC 2
AB 1 1
cos 45◦ = = √
AC 2
BC 45°
tan 45◦ = =1 A 1 B
AB

Exact values using symmetry

We can now use symmetry to find exact values for some angles outside the first quadrant.

Example 10
a Evaluate cos 150◦ . b Evaluate sin 690◦ .

Solution
a cos 150◦ = cos(180 − 30)◦ b sin 690◦ = sin(2 × 360 − 30)◦
√
3 1
= − cos 30◦ = − = sin(−30◦ ) = −
2 2

Example 11
 5π   11π 
a Evaluate cos . b Evaluate sin .
4 6
Solution
 5π   π  11π   π
a cos = cos π + b sin = sin 2π −
4 4 6 6
π π
= − cos (by symmetry) = − sin (by symmetry)
4 6
1 1
= −√ =−
2 2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 486 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14E

Approximating sin θ for small θ

π
The diagram shows part of the unit circle, where 0 < θ < .
2
The arc from C to B has length θ. So we see that y

AB < θ < CD
1
∴ sin θ < θ < tan θ D
B
Dividing through by sin θ:
θ 1
1< <
sin θ cos θ
θ 1
x
Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities: 0 A C
sin θ
cos θ < <1
θ
sin θ
We know that cos θ → 1 as θ → 0. It follows that → 1 as θ → 0.
θ

Hence sin θ ≈ θ for small values of θ. (This also holds for small negative values of θ.)

Summary 14E
As an aid to memory, the exact values for circular functions can be tabulated.

π π π π
θ 0 (30◦ ) (45◦ ) (60◦ ) (90◦ )
6 4 3 2
√
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1
2 2 2
√
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 undef
3

Exercise 14E

Example 10 1 Without using a calculator, evaluate the sin, cos and tan of each of the following:
a 120◦ b 135◦ c 210◦ d 240◦ e 315◦
f 390◦ g 420◦ h −135◦ i −300◦ j −60◦

Example 11 2 Write down the exact values of:

 2π   3π   5π   7π   5π 
a sin b cos c tan d sin e cos
3 4 6 6 4
 4π   5π   7π   11π 
f tan g sin h cos i tan
3 3 4 6
ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press
Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14E 14F Graphs of sine and cosine 487

3 Write down the exact values of:

 2π   11π   13π   15π 
a sin − b cos c tan d tan
3 4 6 6
 14π   3π   11π   21π 
e cos f cos − g sin h cos −
4 4 4 3
Compare the values of θ and sin θ for each of the following:

CAS
4
a θ = 0.1 b θ = 0.2 c θ = −0.1 d θ = −0.2

14F Graphs of sine and cosine

Graph of the sine function
A table of exact values for y = sin x is given below.

3π π π π π 3π 5π 3π 7π 9π 5π 11π
x −π − − − 0 π 2π 3π
4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4

−1 −1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1
y 0 √ −1 √ 0 √ 1 √ 0 √ −1 √ 0 √ 1 √ 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

A calculator can be used to plot the graph of y = sin x (for −π ≤ x ≤ 3π). Note that radian
mode must be selected.
y

1 y = sin x
1
√2
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x
3π π 0 5π
–π π π π 3π π 3π 7π 2π 9π 5π 11π 3π
– – –
4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4
–1
–1 √2

Observations from the graph of y = sin x

 The graph repeats itself after an interval of 2π units.
A function which repeats itself regularly is called a periodic function, and the interval
between the repetitions is called the period of the function (also called the wavelength).
Thus y = sin x has a period of 2π units.
 The maximum and minimum values of sin x are 1 and −1 respectively.
The distance between the ‘mean position’ and the maximum position is called the
amplitude. The graph of y = sin x has an amplitude of 1.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 488 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Graph of the cosine function

A table of exact values for y = cos x is given below.

3π π π π π 3π 5π 3π 7π 9π 5π 11π
x −π − − − 0 π 2π 3π
4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4

−1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1 −1
y −1 √ 0 √ 1 √ 0 √ −1 √ 0 √ 1 √ 0 √ −1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Using the TI-Nspire

 A graph of y = cos x for −π ≤ x ≤ 3π can be
plotted in a Graphs application by entering
f 1(x) = cos(x) | −π ≤ x ≤ 3π.
 Change the window to suit ( menu >
Window/Zoom > Window Settings).

Using the Casio ClassPad

To plot the graph of y = cos x for −π ≤ x ≤ 3π:
 Ensure that your calculator is in radian mode.
 In Graph & Table , enter the equation in y1
as shown, then tick to select and tap $ to produce
the graph.
 Select the 6 icon to adjust the window settings as
shown below.

Observations from the graph of y = cos x

 The period is 2π and the amplitude is 1.
π
 The graph of y = cos x is the graph of y = sin x translated units in the negative direction
2
of the x-axis.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14F Graphs of sine and cosine 489

Sketch graphs of y = a sin(nt) and y = a cos(nt)

The graphs of functions of the forms y = a sin(nt) and y = a cos(nt) are transformations of
the graphs of y = sin t and y = cos t respectively. We first consider the case where a and n are
positive numbers.

Transformations: dilations
Graph of y = 3 sin(2t) The image of the graph of y = sin t under a dilation of factor 3 from
1
the t-axis and a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis is y = 3 sin(2t).
Note: Let f (t) = sin t. Then the graph of y = f (t) is transformed to the graph of y = 3 f (2t).
t 
The point with coordinates (t, y) is mapped to the point with coordinates , 3y .
2
π π 3π y
t 0 π
4 2 4 3 y = 3 sin(2t ), 0 t π
y = 3 sin(2t) 0 3 0 −3 0 2
1
We make the following observations about the graph of
y = 3 sin(2t): 0
π π 3π π t
 amplitude is 3
–1 4 2 4
 period is π
–2
–3

Graph of y = 2 cos(3t) The image of the graph of y = cos t under a dilation of factor 2 from
1
the t-axis and a dilation of factor 3 from the y-axis is y = 2 cos(3t).

π π π 2π y 2π
t 0 y = 2 cos(3t), 0 t
6 3 2 3 3
2
y = 2 cos(3t) 2 0 −2 0 2
1
We make the following observations about the graph of
y = 2 cos(3t): 0
π π π 2π t
 amplitude is 2 –1 6 3 2 3
2π
 period is
3 –2

Amplitude and period Comparing these results with those for y = sin t and y = cos t, the
following general rules can be stated for a and n positive:

Function Amplitude Period

2π
y = a sin(nt) a
n
2π
y = a cos(nt) a
n

Note: The dilation from the t-axis determines the amplitude.

The dilation from the y-axis determines the period.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 490 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Example 12
For each of the following functions with domain R, state the amplitude and period:
1 t
a f (t) = 2 sin(3t) b f (t) = − sin c f (t) = 4 cos(3πt)
2 2
Solution
1
a Amplitude is 2 b Amplitude is 2 c Amplitude is 4
2π 1 2π 2
Period is Period is 2π ÷ 2 = 4π Period is =
3 3π 3

Graphs of y = a sin(nt) and y = a cos(nt)

In general, for a and n positive numbers, the graph of y = a sin(nt) (or y = a cos(nt)) is
obtained from the graph of y = sin t (or y = cos t) by a dilation of factor a from the t-axis
1
and a dilation of factor from the y-axis.
n t 
The point with coordinates (t, y) is mapped to the point with coordinates , ay .
n
The following are important properties of both of the functions f (t) = a sin(nt) and
g(t) = a cos(nt):
2π
 The period is .
n
 The amplitude is a.
 The maximal domain is R.
 The range is [−a, a].

Example 13
For each of the following, give a sequence of transformations which takes the graph of
y = sin x to the graph of y = g(x), and state the amplitude and period of g(x):

a g(x) = 3 sin(2x)
 x
b g(x) = 4 sin
2

Solution
a The graph of y = 3 sin(2x) is obtained from the graph of y = sin x by a dilation of
1
factor 3 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis.
2π
The function g(x) = 3 sin(2x) has amplitude 3 and period = π.
2
 x
b The graph of y = 4 sin is obtained from the graph of y = sin x by a dilation of
2
factor 4 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis.
 x 1
The function g(x) = 4 sin has amplitude 4 and period 2π ÷ = 4π.
2 2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14F Graphs of sine and cosine 491

Example 14
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:
a y = 2 cos(2θ)
1  x
b y= sin
2 2
In each case, show one complete cycle.
Solution Explanation
a y = 2 cos(2θ) The amplitude is 2.
y 2π
The period is = π.
2
The graph of y = 2 cos(2θ) is obtained
2 from the graph of y = cos θ by a dilation
of factor 2 from the θ-axis and a dilation
of factor 12 from the y-axis.
0 θ
π π 3π π
4 2 4
–2

1  x
b y= sin The amplitude is 12 .
2 2
1
y The period is 2π ÷ 2 = 4π.
The graph of y = 12 sin( 2x ) is obtained
1 from the graph of y = sin x by a dilation
2 of factor 21 from the x-axis and a dilation
of factor 2 from the y-axis.
0 x
π 2π 3π 4π
1
–
2

Example 15
Sketch the graph of f : [0, 2] → R, f (t) = 3 sin(πt).
Solution Explanation
The amplitude is 3.
3
The period is 2π ÷ π = 2.
t
1 1 3 2 The graph of f (t) = 3 sin(πt) is obtained from the
2 2 graph of y = sin t by a dilation of factor 3 from the
–3 1
t-axis and a dilation of factor from the y-axis.
π

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 492 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Transformations: reflection in the horizontal axis

Example 16
Sketch the following graphs for x ∈ [0, 4π]:
 x
a f (x) = −2 sin b y = − cos(2x)
2
Solution Explanation
a y The graph of f (x) = −2 sin( 2x ) is obtained from
the graph of y = 2 sin( 2x ) by a reflection in
2
the x-axis.
x The amplitude is 2 and the period is 4π.
0 2π 4π
–2

b y The graph of y = − cos(2x) is obtained from

1 the graph of y = cos(2x) by a reflection in
the x-axis.

x The amplitude is 1 and the period is π.

0 π 2π 3π 4π

–1

Transformations: reflection in the vertical axis

Remember that sin(−x) = − sin x and cos(−x) = cos x.
Hence, when reflected in the y-axis:
 The graph of y = cos x transforms onto itself. (The point (α, β) is mapped to the point
(−α, β). This second point is on the curve y = cos x by the observation above.)
 The graph of y = sin x transforms onto the graph of y = − sin x. (The point (α, β)
is mapped to the point (−α, β). This second point is on the curve y = − sin x by the
observation above.)

Summary 14F
For positive numbers a and n, the graphs of y = a sin(nt), y = −a sin(nt), y = a cos(nt) and
y = −a cos(nt) all have the following properties:
2π
 The period is .
n
 The amplitude is a.
 The maximal domain is R.
 The range is [−a, a].

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14F 14F Graphs of sine and cosine 493

Skill-
sheet Exercise 14F

Example 12 1 Write down i the period and ii the amplitude of each of the following:
1
a 2 sin θ b 3 sin(2θ) c cos(3θ)
2
1  1
d 3 sin θ e 4 cos(3θ) f − sin(4θ)
2 2
1   πt 
g −2 cos θ h 2 cos(πt) i −3 sin
2 2
Example 13 2 For each of the following, give a sequence of transformations which takes the graph of
y = sin x to the graph of y = g(x), and state the amplitude and period of g(x):
a g(x) = 3 sin x b g(x) = sin(5x)
 x
c g(x) = sin d g(x) = 2 sin(5x)
3
3 For each of the following, give a sequence of transformations which takes the graph of
y = sin x to the graph of y = g(x), and state the amplitude and period of g(x):
 x
a g(x) = − sin(5x) b g(x) = sin(−x) c g(x) = 2 sin
 x  −x  3
d g(x) = −4 sin e g(x) = 2 sin
2 3
Example 14 4 Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing one complete cycle. State the
amplitude and period.
θ
a y = 3 sin(2x) b y = 2 cos(3θ) c y = 4 sin
2
1
d y = cos(3x) e y = 4 sin(3x) f y = 5 cos(2x)
2 θ θ
g y = −3 cos h y = 2 cos(4θ) i y = −2 sin
2 3
Example 15 5 Sketch the graph of:
a f : [0, 2] → R, f (t) = 2 cos(πt) b f : [0, 2] → R, f (t) = 3 sin(2πt)

Example 16 6 Sketch the graph of:

 x
a f (x) = sin(2x) for x ∈ [−2π, 2π] for x ∈ [−6π, 6π]
b f (x) = 2 sin
3
c f (x) = 2 cos(3x) for x ∈ [0, 2π] d f (x) = −2 sin(3x) for x ∈ [0, 2π]

5  2x 
7 Sketch the graph of f : [0, 2π] → R, f (x) = cos .
2 3
Hint: For the endpoints, find f (0) and f (2π).

8 a On the one set of axes, sketch the graphs of f : [0, 2π] → R, f (x) = sin x and
g : [0, 2π] → R, g(x) = cos x.
b By inspection from these graphs, state the values of x for which sin x = cos x.

With the help of your calculator, sketch the graphs of y = sin x and y = x on the same
CAS

9
π π
set of axes for − ≤ x ≤ .
2 2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 494 Chapter 14: Circular functions

14G Solution of trigonometric equations

In this section we introduce methods for solving equations of the form a sin(nt) = b and
a cos(nt) = b.

Solving equations of the form sin t = b and cos t = b

First we look at the techniques for solving equations of the form sin t = b and cos t = b.
These same techniques will be applied to solve more complicated trigonometric equations
later in this section.

Example 17
1
Find all solutions to the equation sin θ = for θ ∈ [0, 4π].
2
Solution Explanation
h
πi π
The solution for θ ∈ 0, is θ = . By sketching a graph, we can see that there
2 6
are four solutions in the interval [0, 4π].
π 5π
The second solution is θ = π − = . y
6 6
π 13π y = sin θ 1
The third solution is θ = 2π + = . 1 y=
6 6 2
5π 17π
The fourth solution is θ = 2π + = . 0
π θ
6 6 π 2π 3π 4π
6
These four solutions are shown on the –1
graph below.

y The first solution can be obtained from

a knowledge of exact values or by using
y = sinθ
1 1 sin−1 on your calculator.
y=
2
The second solution is obtained using
0 θ
π 5π 13π 17π symmetry. The sine function is positive in
6 6 6 6 the 2nd quadrant and sin(π − θ) = sin θ.
–1
y
1
√3 1 √3
− 2
, 2 , 1
5π 2 2
6 π
6 x
−1 0 1

−1

Further solutions are found by adding 2π,

since sin θ = sin(2π + θ).

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14G Solution of trigonometric equations 495

Example 18
Find two values of x:
a sin x = −0.3 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
b cos x◦ = −0.7 with 0◦ ≤ x◦ ≤ 360◦

Solution
h πi
a First solve the equation sin α = 0.3 for α ∈ 0, . Use your calculator to find the
2
solution α = 0.30469 . . .
Now the value of sin x is negative for P(x) in the 3rd and 4th quadrants. From the
symmetry relationships (or from the graph of y = sin x):
3rd quadrant: x = π + 0.30469 . . .
= 3.446 (to 3 d.p.) ( , 0.3)
4th quadrant: x = 2π − 0.30469 . . .
= 5.978 (to 3 d.p.) ( , –0.3) ( , – 0.3)

∴ If sin x = −0.3, then x = 3.446 or x = 5.978.

b First solve the equation cos α◦ = 0.7 for α◦ ∈ [0◦ , 90◦ ]. Use your calculator to find the
solution α◦ = 45.57◦ .
Now the value of cos x◦ is negative for P(x◦ ) in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
2nd quadrant: x◦ = 180◦ − 45.57◦
= 134.43◦ (–0.7, ) (0.7, )
◦ ◦ ◦
3rd quadrant: x = 180 + 45.57
= 225.57◦ (– 0.7, )
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
∴ If cos x = −0.7, then x = 134.43 or x = 225.57 .

Example 19
Find all the values of θ◦ between 0◦ and 360◦ for which:
√
◦ 3 1
a cos θ = b 2 sin θ◦ = −1 c cos θ◦ − √ = 0
2 2
Solution Explanation
√
3
a cos θ◦ = cos θ◦ is positive, and so P(θ◦ ) lies in the
2
1st or 4th quadrant.
θ◦ = 30◦ or θ◦ = 360◦ − 30◦
cos(360◦ − θ◦ ) = cos θ◦
θ◦ = 30◦ or θ◦ = 330◦

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 496 Chapter 14: Circular functions

b 2 sin θ◦ = −1
1
sin θ◦ = − sin θ◦ is negative, and so P(θ◦ ) lies in the
2
3rd or 4th quadrant.
θ◦ = 180◦ + 30◦ or θ◦ = 360◦ − 30◦
sin(180◦ + θ◦ ) = − sin θ◦
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
θ = 210 or θ = 330
sin(360◦ − θ◦ ) = − sin θ◦

1
c cos θ◦ − √ = 0
2
1
cos θ◦ = √ cos θ◦ is positive, and so P(θ◦ ) lies in the
2 1st or 4th quadrant.
θ◦ = 45◦ or θ◦ = 360◦ − 45◦
θ◦ = 45◦ or θ◦ = 315◦

Using the TI-Nspire

We show two methods for Example 19 a:
 For the first method, the calculator is in
radian mode, and the degree symbol must
be used in the equation as shown.
 For the second method, the calculator is in
degree mode, and the degree symbol is not
required.

Using the Casio ClassPad

 Ensure that your calculator is in degree mode
(with Deg in the status bar at the bottom of the
main screen).
 Select ` from the Math1 or Math3 keyboard.
 Use the Math1 , Math3 and Trig keyboards to
enter the equation and domain as shown.
 Tap EXE .

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14G Solution of trigonometric equations 497

Solving equations of the form a sin(nt) = b and a cos(nt) = b

The techniques introduced above can be applied in a more general situation. This is achieved
by a simple substitution, as shown in the following example.

Example 20 √
3
Solve the equation sin(2θ) = − for θ ∈ [−π, π].
2
Solution
It is clear from the graph that there are four y
solutions.
y = sin(2θ)
To solve the equation, let x = 2θ.
Note: If θ ∈ [−π, π], then we have
x = 2θ ∈ [−2π, 2π]. –π –π π θ
0 π
Now consider the equation 2 2
√ √3
3 y =–
sin x = − for x ∈ [−2π, 2π] 2
2
The 1st quadrant
√ solution to the equation y
3 π
sin α = is α = .
2 3 y = sin x
Using symmetry,
√ the solutions to
3
sin x = − for x ∈ [0, 2π] are
2 x
π π –2π 0 2π
x = π + and x = 2π −
3 3
√3
4π 5π y =– 2
i.e. x = and x =
3 3
4π 5π
The other two solutions (obtained by subtracting 2π) are x = − 2π and x = − 2π.
3 3
2π π 4π 5π
∴ The required solutions for x are − , − , and .
3 3 3 3
π π 2π 5π
∴ The required solutions for θ are − , − , and .
3 6 3 6

Using the TI-Nspire

Ensure that the calculator is in radian mode and
complete as shown.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 498 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14G

Using the Casio ClassPad

 Ensure that your calculator is in radian mode (with
in the status bar at bottom of the main screen).
Rad
 Use ` and complete as shown.

Summary 14G
 For solving equations of the form sin t = b and cos t = b:
• First find the solutions in the interval [0, 2π]. This can be done using your
knowledge of exact values and symmetry properties, or with the aid of a calculator.
• Further solutions can be found by adding and subtracting multiples of 2π.
 For solving equations of the form a sin(nt) = b and a cos(nt) = b:
• First substitute x = nt. Work out the interval in which solutions for x are required.
Then proceed as in the case above to solve for x.
• Once the solutions for x are found, the solutions for t can be found.
For example: To solve sin(3t) = 12 for t ∈ [0, 2π], first let x = 3t. The equation becomes
sin x = 21 and the required solutions for x are in the interval [0, 6π].

Skill-
sheet Exercise 14G

Example 17 1 Find all the values of x between 0 and 4π for which: √

1 1 3
a cos x = b sin x = √ c sin x =
2 2 2
Find, correct to two decimal places, all the values of x between 0 and 2π for which:
CAS
Example 18 2
a sin x = 0.8 b cos x = −0.4 c sin x = −0.35
d sin x = 0.4 e cos x = −0.7 f cos x = −0.2

Example 19 3 Without using a calculator, find all the values of θ◦ between 0◦ and 360◦ for each of the
following:
√
◦ 3 1 1
a cos θ = − b sin θ◦ = c cos θ◦ = −
2 2 2
◦ ◦
√ √ ◦
d 2 cos(θ ) + 1 = 0 e 2 sin θ = 3 f 2 sin(θ ) − 1 = 0

4 Without using a calculator, find all the values of x between 0 and 2π for each of the
following:
√ √ √
a 2 cos x = 3 b 2 sin(x) + 1 = 0 c 2 cos(x) − 1 = 0

5 Find all the values of x between −π and π for which:

√
1 3 1
a cos x = − √ b sin x = c cos x = −
2 2 2
ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press
Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14G 14H Sketch graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε ) and y = a cos n(t ± ε ) 499

6 a Sketch the graph of f : [−2π, 2π] → R, f (x) = cos x.

1
b On the graph, mark the points with y-coordinate 2 and give the associated x-values.
c On the graph, mark the points with y-coordinate − 12 and give the associated x-values.
Example 20 7 Solve the following equations for θ ∈ [0, 2π]:
√
1 3 1
a sin(2θ) = − b cos(2θ) = c sin(2θ) =
2 2 2
√
1 3 1
d sin(3θ) = − √ e cos(2θ) = − f sin(2θ) = − √
2 2 2
Solve the following equations for θ ∈ [0, 2π]:

CAS
8
a sin(2θ) = −0.8 b sin(2θ) = −0.6 c cos(2θ) = 0.4 d cos(3θ) = 0.6

14H Sketch graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε) and y = a cos n(t ± ε)

In this section, we consider translations of graphs of functions of the form f (t) = a sin(nt) and
g(t) = a cos(nt) in the direction of the t-axis.

Example 21
On separate axes, draw the graphs of the following functions. Use a calculator to help
establish the shape. Set the window appropriately by noting the range and period.
 π π 5π  π π π
a y = 3 sin 2 t − , ≤t≤ b y = 2 cos 3 t + , − ≤ t ≤
4 4 4 3 3 3
Solution
2π
a The range is [−3, 3] and the period is π. b The range is [−2, 2] and the period is .
3
y y
3
2 2
1 1
0 t t
π π 3π π 5π –π –π 0 π π
–1
4 2 4 4 3 6 –1 6 3
–2
–3 –2

Observations from the example

π π
a The graph of y = 3 sin 2 t − is the same shape as y = 3 sin(2t), but is translated units
4 4
in the positive direction of the t-axis.
 π π
b The graph of y = 2 cos 3 t + is the same shape as y = 2 cos(3t), but is translated units
3 3
in the negative direction of the t-axis.
The effect of ±ε is to translate the graph parallel to the t-axis. (Here ±ε is called the phase.)

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 500 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14H

Determining the transformation

To determine the sequence of transformations, the techniques of Chapter 7 can also be used.
 π
The graph of y = sin t is transformed to the graph of y = 3 sin 2 t − .
4
y 0  π 
Write the second equation as = sin 2 t0 − .
3 4
y 0  π t π
From this it can be seen that y = and t = 2 t0 − . Thus y0 = 3y and t0 = + .
3 4 2 4
Hence the sequence of transformations is:
 dilation of factor 3 from the t-axis
1
 dilation of factor from the y-axis
2
π
 translation of units in the positive direction of the t-axis.
4
Alternatively, we can
 find π
this sequence by noting that the graph of y = f (t) is transformed to

the graph of y = 3 f 2 t − , where f (t) = sin t.
4

Summary 14H
The graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε) and y = a cos n(t ± ε) are translations of the graphs of
y = a sin(nt) and y = a cos(nt) respectively.
The graphs are translated ∓ε units parallel to the t-axis, where ±ε is called the phase.

Exercise 14H

Example 21 1 Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing one complete cycle. State the period
and amplitude, and the greatest and least values of y.
 π  π
a y = 3 sin θ − b y = sin 2(θ + π) c y = 2 sin 3 θ +
2 4
√  π  π
d y = 3 sin 2 θ − e y = 3 sin(2x) f y = 2 cos 3 θ +
2 4
√  π   π
g y = 2 sin 2 θ − h y = −3 sin(2x) i y = −3 cos 2 θ +
3 2
 π 
2 For the function f : [0, 2π] → R, f (x) = cos x − :
3
a find f (0), f (2π) b sketch the graph of f .
 π
3 For the function f : [0, 2π] → R, f (x) = sin 2 x − :
3
a find f (0), f (2π) b sketch the graph of f .
 π
4 For the function f : [−π, π] → R, f (x) = sin 3 x + :
4
a find f (−π), f (π) b sketch the graph of f .

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14H 14I Sketch graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε ) ± b and y = a cos n(t ± ε ) ± b 501

5 Find the equation of the image of y = sin x for each of the following transformations:
a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis followed by dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis
1
b dilation of factor from the y-axis followed by dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis
2
c dilation of factor 3 from the y-axis followed by dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis
π
d dilation of factor 21 from the y-axis followed by translation of units in the positive
3
direction of the x-axis
π
e dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis followed by translation of units in the negative
3
direction of the x-axis

14I Sketch graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε) ± b and

y = a cos n(t ± ε ) ± b
We now consider translations parallel to the y-axis.

Example 22
Sketch each of the following graphs. Use a calculator to help establish the shape.
 π π 5π  π π π
a y = 3 sin 2 t − + 2, ≤t≤ b y = 2 cos 3 t + − 1, − ≤ t ≤
4 4 4 3 3 3
Solution
a y b y
π π
y = 3sin2 t – +2 y = 2cos 3 t + –1
5 4 3
4 –π 1 π
3 6 6
t
2 –π 0 π
1 3 –1 3
0 t
π π 3π π 5π –2
–1
4 2 4 4 –3

Observations from the example

π  π
a The graph of y = 3 sin 2 t − + 2 is the same shape as the graph of y = 3 sin 2 t − ,
4 4
but is translated 2 units in the positive direction of the y-axis.
 π  π
b The graph of y = 2 cos 3 t + − 1 is the same shape as the graph of y = 2 cos 3 t + ,
3 3
but is translated 1 unit in the negative direction of the y-axis.
In general, the effect of ±b is to translate the graph ±b units parallel to the y-axis.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 502 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Finding axis intercepts

Example 23
Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [0, 2π]. Clearly indicate axis intercepts.
√  π √
a y = 2 sin(x) + 1 b y = 2 cos(2x) − 1 c y = 2 sin 2 x − − 3
3
Solution
√
a To determine the x-axis intercepts, the equation 2 sin(x) + 1 = 0 must be solved.
√
2 sin(x) + 1 = 0 y
1 y = √2 sin (x) + 1
∴ sin x = − √
2 √2 + 1
π π
∴ x=π+ or 2π − (0, 1)
4 4 3π
0 2
5π 7π x
∴x= or – √2 + 1 π π 5π 7π 2π
4 4
2 4 4
The x-axis intercepts are
5π 7π
and .
4 4

b 2 cos(2x) − 1 = 0 y y = 2 cos (2x) – 1

1 π 5π 7π 11π
∴ cos(2x) = 1
2 6 6 6 6 2π
0
x
π 5π 7π 11π
∴ 2x = , , or –1
3 3 3 3
π 5π 7π 11π –2
∴ x= , , or
6 6 6 6 –3
π 5π
The x-axis intercepts are , ,
6 6
7π 11π
and .
6 6
 √
π 3
c sin 2 x − =
3 2
 π  π 2π 7π 8π
∴2 x− = , , or
3 3 3 3 3
y
π π π 7π 4π y = 2 sin 2 x – π – √3
∴ x− = , , or 3
3 6 3 6 3 π 2π 3π 5π
π 2π 3π 5π 2 3 2 3 y = 2 – √3
∴ x= , , or x
2 3 2 3 0 π 2π
π 2π –√3
The x-axis intercepts are , ,
2 3
3π 5π
and . (0, –2 √3)
2 3 y = –2 – √3

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14I 14J Further symmetry properties and the Pythagorean identity 503

Skill-
sheet Exercise 14I

Example 23 1 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [0, 2π]. Label the axis intercepts.
√ √
a y = 2 sin(x) + 1 b y = 2 sin(2x) − 3 c y = 2 cos(x) + 1
√  π
d y = 2 sin(2x) − 2 e y = 2 sin x − +1
4
2 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [−π, 2π]. Label the axis intercepts.
 π
a y = 2 sin(3x) − 2 b y = 2 cos 3 x − c y = 2 sin(2x) − 3
4
 π  π
d y = 2 cos(2x) + 1 e y = 2 cos 2 x − −1 f y = 2 sin 2 x + +1
3 6
3 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [−π, π]. Label the axis intercepts.
 π  π  π √
a y = 2 sin 2 x + +1 b y = −2 sin 2 x + + 1 c y = 2 cos 2 x + + 3
3 6 4

14J Further symmetry properties and the

Pythagorean identity y
Complementary relationships
π
From the diagram to the right, P –θ
π  2
sin − θ = a b
2
π –θ
and, since a = cos θ, a 2 P(θ)
θ
π 
sin − θ = cos θ b
2
θ
x
From the same diagram, 0 a
π 
cos − θ = b
2
and, since b = sin θ,
π  y
cos − θ = sin θ
2
P π +θ
2

From the diagram to the right: b π

+θ
2
π 
sin + θ = a = cos θ a P(θ)
2 θ
π 
b
cos + θ = −b = −sin θ θ
2 x
0 a

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 504 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Example 24
If sin θ = 0.3 and cos α = 0.8, find the values of:
π  π 
a sin − α b cos + θ c sin(−θ)
2 2
Solution
π  π 
a sin − α = cos α b cos + θ = −sin θ c sin(−θ) = −sin θ
2 2
= 0.8 = −0.3 = −0.3

The Pythagorean identity y

Consider a point, P(θ), on the unit circle.
1
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
OP2 = OM 2 + MP2 P(θ)
2 2
∴ 1 = (cos θ) + (sin θ)
1
2 2
Now (cos θ) and (sin θ) may be written sin θ
as cos2 θ and sin2 θ. θ x
2 2 –1 0 cos θ M 1
∴ 1 = cos θ + sin θ
As this is true for all values of θ, it is
called an identity. In particular, this is
called the Pythagorean identity:

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 –1

Example 25
3 π
Given that sin x = and < x < π, find:
5 2
a cos x b tan x

Solution
3
a Substitute sin x = into the b Using part a, we have
5
Pythagorean identity: sin x
tan x =
cos x
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
9 3  4
cos2 x + =1 = ÷ −
25 5 5
9 3  5
cos2 x = 1 − = × −
25 5 4
16
= 3
25 =−
4
4
Therefore cos x = ± . But x is in the
5
4
2nd quadrant, and so cos x = − .
5
ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press
Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14J 14J Further symmetry properties and the Pythagorean identity 505

Summary 14J
 Complementary relationships
π  π 
sin − θ = cos θ cos − θ = sin θ
2 2
π  π 
sin + θ = cos θ cos + θ = − sin θ
2 2
 Pythagorean identity
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

Exercise 14J

Example 24 1 If sin x = 0.3, cos α = 0.6 and tan θ = 0.7, find the values of:
π  π 
a cos(−α) b sin + α c tan(−θ) d cos −x
2 2
π  π  π 
e sin(−x) f tan − θ g cos + x h sin − α
2 2 2
 3π   3π 
i sin +α j cos −x
2 2

π π
2 a Given that 0 < θ < and cos θ = sin , find the value of θ.
2 6
π π
b Given that 0 < θ < and sin θ = cos , find the value of θ.
2 6
π π
c Given that 0 < θ < and cos θ = sin , find the value of θ.
2 12
π  3π 
d Given that 0 < θ < and sin θ = cos , find the value of θ.
2 7

3 3π
Example 25 3 Given that cos x = and < x < 2π, find sin x and tan x.
5 2

5 π
4 Given that sin x = and < x < π, find cos x and tan x.
13 2

1 3π
5 Given that cos x = and < x < 2π, find sin x and tan x.
5 2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 506 Chapter 14: Circular functions

14K The tangent function

A table of values for y = tan x is given below. Use a calculator to check these values and plot
the graph of y = tan x.

3π π π π π 3π 5π 3π 7π 9π 5π 11π
x −π − − − 0 π 2π 3π
4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4
y 0 1 ud −1 0 1 ud −1 0 1 ud −1 0 1 ud −1 0

–π π 3π 5π
x= x= x= x=
2 2 2 2
1
–π π 2π 3π
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
–1

π π 3π 5π
Note: The lines x = − , x = , x= and x = are asymptotes.
2 2 2 2
The x-axis intercepts occur when sin x = 0, which is for x = 0, π, 2π, etc. In general,
x = kπ, where k is an integer.

Observations from the graph of y = tan x

 The graph repeats itself every π units, i.e. the period of tan is π.
 The range of tan is R.
(2k + 1)π
 The equations of the asymptotes are of the form x = , where k is an integer.
2
 The x-axis intercepts occur for x = kπ, where k is an integer.

Transformations of y = tan x
1
Consider a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis and a dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis:
(x, y) → ( 12 x, 3y)
If the image of (x, y) under the transformation is (x0 , y0 ), then x0 = 21 x and y0 = 3y. Hence
y0
x = 2x0 and y = .
3
y0
Thus the graph of y = tan x is transformed to the graph of = tan(2x0 ). That is, it is
3
π
transformed to the graph of y = 3 tan(2x). The period of the graph will be .
2

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14K The tangent function 507

Graph of y = a tan(nt)
In general, for a and n positive numbers, the graph of y = a tan(nt) is obtained from the
1
graph of y = tan t by a dilation of factor a from the t-axis and a dilation of factor from
n
the y-axis.
The following are important properties of the function f (t) = a tan(nt):
π
 The period is .  The range is R.
n
(2k + 1)π
 The asymptotes have equations t = , where k is an integer.
2n
kπ
 The t-axis intercepts are t = , where k is an integer.
n

Example 26
Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [−π, π]:
a y = 3 tan(2x) b y = −2 tan(3x)

Solution
π π π π
a Period = = b Period = =
n 2 n 3
(2k + 1)π (2k + 1)π
Asymptotes: x = , k∈Z Asymptotes: x = , k∈Z
4 6
kπ kπ
Axis intercepts: x = , k∈Z Axis intercepts: x = , k∈Z
2 3
y y

x = –3π
4 x = –π
4 x = π4 x = 34π

0 x
x –π –2π –π 0 π 2π π
–π –π π π
3 3 3 3
2 2

–5π –π –π π π 5π
x= x= x= x= x= x=
6 2 6 6 2 6

Solution of equations
The techniques for solving equations of the form a tan(nt) = b are similar to those for solving
equations of the form a sin(nt) = b and a cos(nt) = b discussed in Section 14G. An important
difference is that the period of tan is π. The method for obtaining further solutions is to add
and subtract multiples of π.

Example 27
Solve each of the following equations for x ∈ [−π, π]:
√
a tan x = −1 b tan(2x) = 3 c 2 tan(3x) = 0

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 508 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Solution Explanation
a tan x = −1 Since tan x is negative, the point P(x) lies
3π −π in the 2nd or 4th quadrant. Solutions are
∴ x= or
4 4 required for x ∈ [−π, π].
Use tan(π − x) = − tan x and
tan(−x) = − tan x.
√
b tan(2x) = 3
Let a = 2x. The equation becomes Consider solutions for a ∈ [−2π, 2π].
√
tan a = 3 Since tan a is positive, the point P(a) lies in
π 4π −2π −5π the 1st or 3rd quadrant.
∴ a = or or or
3 3 3 3 Use tan(π + x) = tan x.
π 4π −2π −5π
∴ x = or or or Subtract π from each of the first two
6 6 6 6
solutions to obtain the second two.
π 2π −π −5π
= or or or
6 3 3 6
c 2 tan(3x) = 0 The solutions for 3x are to be in the interval
3x = −3π, −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π or 3π [−3π, 3π].
−2π −π π 2π
∴ x = −π, , , 0, , or π
3 3 3 3

Example 28
Sketch the graph of y = tan(2x) + 1 for x ∈ [−π, π].
Solution
The graph of y = tan(2x) + 1 is obtained from the graph of y = tan(2x) by a translation of
1 unit in the positive direction of the y-axis.
For the y-axis intercept, let x = 0. Then y = tan 0 + 1 = 1.
For the x-axis intercepts, consider tan(2x) + 1 = 0.
This implies tan(2x) = −1. y
3π −π 7π −5π –3π –π π 3π
Hence 2x = , , or x= x= x= x=
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3π −π 7π −5π
and so x= , , or
8 8 8 8
(– π, 1) 1 (π , 1)
The asymptotes are the same as x
those for y = tan(2x), –5 π –π 3π 7π
(2k + 1)π 8 8 8 8
that is, x = ,k∈Z
4

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14K 14L Numerical methods with a CAS calculator 509

Exercise 14K

1 For each of the following, state the period:

 2x 
a y = tan(4x) b y = tan c y = −3 tan(2x)
3
Example 26 2 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [−π, π]:
a y = tan(2x) b y = 2 tan(3x) c y = − tan x

Example 27 3 Solve each of the following equations for x ∈ [−π, π]:

√
a 2 tan(2x) = 2 b 3 tan(3x) = 3
√ √
c 2 tan(2x) = 2 3 d 3 tan(3x) = − 3

Example 28 4 Sketch the graph of each of the following for x ∈ [−π, π]:
√
a y = 3 tan(x) + 3 b y = tan(x) + 2 c y = 3 tan(x) − 3

14L Numerical methods with a CAS calculator

Example 29
x
Solve the equation = sin x, giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
2

Using the TI-Nspire

 Use menu > Algebra > Solve to solve
as shown.
 Press ctrl enter , if necessary, to obtain the
answer as a decimal approximation.

Using the Casio ClassPad

x
The equation = sin(x) can be solved numerically by drawing a graph for each side of
2
the equation and finding the intersection points.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 510 Chapter 14: Circular functions

 To see all the intersection points, set the window to −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π and −2 ≤ y ≤ 2.
 Select Analysis > G-Solve > Intersection to obtain the first point. To find the other
points, navigate across using the cursor arrows on the hard keyboard.

Alternatively, the solutions can be

found in the main screen.

Fitting data
Example 30
Fit a sine curve to the points (1, 2.08), (2, 2.3), (3, 0.49), (4, −1.77) and (6, −0.96).

Using the TI-Nspire

 Enter the data either in a Calculator
application as lists or in a Lists & Spreadsheet
application as shown.

 In a Calculator application, choose menu >

Statistics > Stat Calculations > Sinusoidal
Regression.
 This now gives the values of a, b, c and d,
and the function has been stored as f 1.
Note: This regression analysis can also be done
in the Lists & Spreadsheet application.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14L 14L Numerical methods with a CAS calculator 511

 The curve can be shown in a Graphs

application together with the scatter plot
( menu > Graph Type > Scatter Plot)
using an appropriate window ( menu >
Window/Zoom).

Note: The scatter plot and regression

curve can also be obtained using the
Data & Statistics application.

Using the Casio ClassPad

 In Statistics , enter the data in list1 and
list2 as shown.
 Select Calc > Regression > Sinusoidal Reg and
check the settings are correct. Tap OK .

Note: Set Copy Formula to y1, as this will store the

formula for the graph for later use.
 Take note of the formula. Then tap OK again to
produce the graph.

Exercise 14L

Solve each of the following equations for x, correct to two decimal places:
CAS
Example 29 1
a cos x = x b sin x = 1 − x c cos x = x2 d sin x = x2

Example 30 2 For each of the following sets of data, find a suitable trigonometric rule (model):
a π π 3π
θ 0 π
4 2 4
y 1 2.4 −1 2.4 1

b
θ 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
y 0 1.77 2.85 2.85 1.77

c
θ 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
y 5 2.18 0.34 0.13 1.62

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 512 Chapter 14: Circular functions

14M General solution of trigonometric equations

In Section 14G, we considered the solution of equations involving circular functions over a
restricted domain. In this section, we consider the general solutions of such equations over
the maximal domain for each function.
If an equation involving a circular function has one or more solutions in one ‘cycle’, then it
will have corresponding solutions in each cycle of its domain, i.e. there will be an infinite
number of solutions.
For example, if cos x = 14 , then the solution in the interval [0, π] is given by:
x = cos−1 ( 14 )
By the symmetry properties of the cosine function, other solutions are given by:
− cos−1 ( 14 ), ±2π + cos−1 ( 14 ), ±2π − cos−1 ( 14 ), ±4π + cos−1 ( 14 ), ±4π − cos−1 ( 14 ), . . .
In general, we have the following:

 For a ∈ [−1, 1], the general solution of the equation cos x = a is

x = 2nπ ± cos−1 (a), where n ∈ Z
 For a ∈ R, the general solution of the equation tan x = a is
x = nπ + tan−1 (a), where n ∈ Z
 For a ∈ [−1, 1], the general solution of the equation sin x = a is
x = 2nπ + sin−1 (a) or x = (2n + 1)π − sin−1 (a), where n ∈ Z

Note: An alternative and more concise way to express the general solution of sin x = a is
x = nπ + (−1)n sin−1 (a), where n ∈ Z.

Example 31
Find the general solution of each of the following equations:
√ √
a cos x = 0.5 b 3 tan(3x) = 1 c 2 sin x = 2

Solution
1
a cos x = 0.5 b tan(3x) = √
3
x = 2nπ ± cos−1 (0.5)  1 
π 3x = nπ + tan−1 √
= 2nπ ± 3
3 π
(6n ± 1)π = nπ +
= , n∈Z 6
3 (6n + 1)π
=
6
(6n + 1)π
x= , n∈Z
18

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14M General solution of trigonometric equations 513

√
2 1
c sin x = = √
2 2
 1   1 
x = 2nπ + sin−1 √ or x = (2n + 1)π − sin−1 √
2 2
π π
= 2nπ + = (2n + 1)π −
4 4
(8n + 1)π (8n + 3)π
= , n∈Z = , n∈Z
4 4

Using the TI-Nspire

Check that the calculator is in radian mode.
a Use menu > Algebra > Solve and complete
as shown. Note the use of 12 rather than 0.5 to
ensure that the answer is exact.

b c

Using the Casio ClassPad

Check that the calculator is in radian mode.
a  In M, select ` from the or Math3 keyboard.
Math1

 Enter the equation cos(x) = 0.5 and tap EXE .

 To view the entire solution, rotate the screen by selecting q.

b c

Note: The constn(1) and constn(2) are replaced with n in the written answer.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 514 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14M

Example 32
Find the first three positive solutions of each of the following equations:
√ √
a cos x = 0.5 b 3 tan(3x) = 1 c 2 sin x = 2

Solution
(6n ± 1)π
a The general solution (from Example 31 a) is given by x = , n ∈ Z.
3
π 5π 7π
When n = 0, x = ± , and when n = 1, x = or x = .
3 3 3
π 5π 7π
Thus the first three positive solutions of cos x = 0.5 are x = , , .
3 3 3
(6n + 1)π
b The general solution (from Example 31 b) is given by x = , n ∈ Z.
18
π 7π 13π
When n = 0, x = , and when n = 1, x = , and when n = 2, x = .
18 18 18
√ π 7π 13π
Thus the first three positive solutions of 3 tan(3x) = 1 are x = , , .
18 18 18
(8n + 1)π (8n + 3)π
c The general solution (from Example 31 c) is x = or x = , n ∈ Z.
4 4
π 3π 9π 11π
When n = 0, x = or x = , and when n = 1, x = or x = .
4 4 4 4
√ π 3π 9π
Thus the first three positive solutions of 2 sin x = 2 are x = , , .
4 4 4

Summary 14M
 For a ∈ [−1, 1], the general solution of the equation cos x = a is
x = 2nπ ± cos−1 (a), where n ∈ Z
 For a ∈ R, the general solution of the equation tan x = a is
x = nπ + tan−1 (a), where n ∈ Z
 For a ∈ [−1, 1], the general solution of the equation sin x = a is
x = 2nπ + sin−1 (a) or x = (2n + 1)π − sin−1 (a), where n ∈ Z

Exercise 14M

Example 31 1 Find the general solution of each of the following equations:

√ √
a sin x = 0.5 b 2 cos(3x) = 3 c 3 tan x = −3

Example 32 2 Find the first two positive solutions of each of the following equations:
√ √
a sin x = 0.5 b 2 cos(3x) = 3 c 3 tan x = −3

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14M 14N Applications of circular functions 515

 π √
3 Find the general solution of 2 cos 2x + = 2, and hence find all the solutions for x
4
in the interval (−2π, 2π).
√ π 
4 Find the general solution of 3 tan − 3x − 1 = 0, and hence find all the solutions for
6
x in the interval [−π, 0].
√
5 Find the general solution of 2 sin(4πx) + 3 = 0, and hence find all the solutions for x
in the interval [−1, 1].

14N Applications of circular functions

Example 33
It is suggested that the height, h(t) metres, of the tide above mean sea level on 1 January at
Warnung is given approximately by the rule
π 
h(t) = 4 sin t
6
where t is the number of hours after midnight.
a Draw the graph of y = h(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
b When was high tide?
c What was the height of the high tide?
d What was the height of the tide at 8 a.m.?
e A boat can only cross the harbour bar when the tide is at least 1 metre above mean sea
level. When could the boat cross the harbour bar on 1 January?

Solution
a y b High tide occurs when
h(t) = 4:
π 
4 y = h(t) 4 sin t = 4
6
π 
sin t = 1
t 6
0 6 12 18 24 π π 5π
t= ,
6 2 2
–4 ∴ t = 3, 15
π
Note: Period = 2π ÷ = 12 i.e. high tide occurs at
6
03:00 and 15:00 (3 p.m.).

c The high tide has height 4 metres above the mean height.
 8π   4π  √
− 3 √
d h(8) = 4 sin = 4 sin =4× = −2 3
6 3 2
√
The water is 2 3 metres below the mean height at 8 a.m.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 516 Chapter 14: Circular functions 14N

π 
e We first consider 4 sin t = 1.
π  1 6
Thus sin t =
6 4
π
∴ t = 0.2526, 2.889, 6.5358, 9.172
6
∴ t = 0.4824, 5.5176, 12.4824, 17.5173
i.e. the water is at height 1 metre at 00:29, 05:31, 12:29, 17:31.
Thus the boat can pass across the harbour bar between 00:29 and 05:31, and between
12:29 and 17:31.

Skill-
sheet Exercise 14N

Example 33 1 It is suggested that the height, h(t) metres, of the tide above mean sea level during a
particular day at Seabreak is given approximately by the rule
π 
h(t) = 5 sin t
6
where t is the number of hours after midnight.
a Draw the graph of y = h(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
b When was high tide?
c What was the height of the high tide?
d What was the height of the tide at 2 a.m.?
e What was the height of the tide at 2 p.m.?
f A boat can only cross the harbour bar when the tide is at least 2.5 metres above mean
sea level. When could the boat cross the harbour bar on this day?

2 A particle moves on a straight line, OX, and its distance x metres from O at time
t seconds is given by x = 3 + 2 sin(3t).
a Find its greatest distance from O.
b Find its least distance from O.
c Find the times at which it is 5 metres from O for 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
d Find the times at which it is 3 metres from O for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
e Describe the motion of the particle.

3 A particle moves on a straight line, OX, and its distance x metres from O at time
t seconds is given by x = 5 + 2 sin(2πt).
a Find its greatest distance from O.
b Find its least distance from O.
c Find the times at which it is 7 metres from O for 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
d Find the times at which it is 6 metres from O for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
e Describe the motion of the particle.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 14N 14N Applications of circular functions 517

4 A particle moves in a vertical circle of radius 10 m. The height, h(t) m, of the particle
above the ground at time t seconds is given by the function
 πt 
h(t) = 10 sin + 10 where t ≥ 0
3
a Find the height of the particle above the ground for:
i t=0 ii t = 1 iii t = 2 iv t = 4 v t=5
b Find the period of the motion of the particle.
c Find the greatest height of the particle above the ground.
d Find the first four times that the particle is at a height 15 m above the ground.
e Find the first four times that the particle is at a height 5 m above the ground.

The temperature, T ◦ C, in a town over a day is modelled by the function with rule

CAS
5
 πt 
T = 17 − 8 cos
12
where t is the time in hours after midnight, 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
a What is the temperature at midnight?
b What are the maximum and minimum temperatures reached?
c At what times of the day, to the nearest minute, are temperatures warmer than 20◦ C?
d Sketch the graph for the temperatures over a day.

6 The depth, D(t) metres, of water at the entrance

 πt to
 a harbour at t hours after midnight on
a particular day is given by D(t) = 10 + 3 sin , 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
6
a Sketch the graph of D(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
b Find the values of t for which D(t) ≥ 8.5.
c Boats which need a depth of w metres are permitted to enter the harbour only if the
depth of the water at the entrance is at least w metres for a continuous period of
1 hour. Find, correct to one decimal place, the largest value of w which satisfies this
condition.

7 The depth of water at the entrance to a harbour t hours after high tide is D metres, where
D = p + q cos(rt)◦ for suitable constants p, q, r. At high tide the depth is 7 m; at low
tide, 6 hours later, the depth is 3 m.
a Show that r = 30 and find the values of p and q.
b Sketch the graph of D against t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
c Find how soon after low tide a ship that requires a depth of at least 4 m of water will
be able to enter the harbour.

8 For each of the following, construct a formula involving a circular function which could
be used to model the situation described:
a Water depths in a canal vary between a minimum of 3 metres and a maximum of
6 metres over a 24-hour period.
b At a certain town just south of the Arctic circle, the number of hours of daylight
varies between 2 and 22 hours during a 365-day year.

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
Review 518 Chapter 14: Circular functions

Chapter summary

 Definition of a radian y
One radian (written 1c ) is the angle formed at the
Assign-
ment centre of the unit circle by an arc of length 1 unit. 1
180◦ πc
1c = 1◦ = 1 1 unit
π 180
Nrich
1c
x
–1 0 1

–1
 Sine and cosine y
x-coordinate of P(θ) on unit circle:
x = cosine θ, θ∈R 1
P(θ)
y-coordinate of P(θ) on unit circle:
1 y
y = sine θ, θ∈R θc x
Abbreviated to –1 0 1
x
x = cos θ
y = sin θ –1
 Tangent y
If the tangent to the unit circle at A is drawn, then the B
y-coordinate of B is called tangent θ (abbreviated to 1
tan θ). By using similar triangles: tan θ
1
sin θ sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ θc x
–1 0 A
cos θ

–1

 Circular functions and trigonometric ratios

y
O y
sin θ = = =y
H 1
Hypotenuse,
A x 1 y Opposite
H
cos θ = = =x θ side, O
H 1 x
0
O y sin θ x θ
tan θ = = =
A x cos θ Adjacent
side, A

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 Chapter 14 review 519

Review
 Symmetry properties of circular functions

Quadrant 2 (sin is positive) y Quadrant 1 (all functions are positive)

sin( π − θ) = b = sin θ e.g. sin θ = b
1

θ
x
−1 1

−b

sin(π + θ) = −b = −sin θ −1 sin(2π − θ) = −b = −sin θ

Quadrant 3 (tan is positive) Quadrant 4 (cos is positive)

 Further symmetry properties y

Negative angles:
cos(−θ) = cos θ 1
sin(−θ) = − sin θ
− sin θ
tan(−θ) = = − tan θ θ
cos θ x
–1 0 –θ 1
Complementary angles:
π  π 
sin − θ = cos θ, sin + θ = cos θ
2 2
π  π  –1
cos − θ = sin θ, cos + θ = − sin θ
2 2
 Pythagorean identity
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
 Exact values of circular functions

π π π π
θ 0
6 4 3 2
√
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1
2 2 2
√
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 undef
3

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
Review 520 Chapter 14: Circular functions

 Graphs of circular functions

y y

1 y = sin θ 1 y = cos θ
2π
θ θ
0 π 0 π π 3π 2π
−1 −1 2 2

Amplitude = 1 Amplitude = 1
Period = 2π Period = 2π
y

y = tanθ

1
θ
−
−π −1
0 π π π 3π 2π 5π
2 4 2 2 2

Amplitude is undefined
Period = π y
–π 1 π
 Graphs of circular functions of the type 6 6
y = a sin n(t ± ε) ± b and y = a cos n(t ± ε) ± b 0
 π –π π t
e.g. y = 2 cos 3 t + −1 3 –1 3
3
• Amplitude, a = 2 –2
2π 2π –3
• Period = =
n 3
π
• The graph is the same shape as y = 2 cos(3t) but is translated units in the negative
3
direction of the t-axis and 1 unit in the negative direction of the y-axis.
 Solutions of trigonometric equations of the type sin x◦ = a and cos x◦ = a
e.g. Solve cos x◦ = −0.7 for x ∈ [0, 360].
First look at the 1st quadrant: If cos α◦ = 0.7, then α = 45.6.
Since cos x◦ is negative for P(x◦ ) in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants, the solutions are
x = 180 − 45.6 = 134.4 and x = 180 + 45.6 = 225.6

Technology-free questions

1 Convert each of the following to radian measure in terms of π:

a 330◦ b 810◦ c 1080◦ d 1035◦ e 135◦
f 405◦ g 390◦ h 420◦ i 80◦

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 Chapter 14 review 521

Review
2 Convert each of the following to degree measure:
5πc 7πc 11πc 3πc 15πc
a b c d e
6 4 4 12 2
c c c c
3π π 11π 23π
f − g − h − i −
4 4 4 4
3 Give exact values of each of the following:
 11π   7π   11π   7π 
a sin b cos − c sin d cos −
4 4 6 6
 13π   23π   23   17 
e cos f sin g cos − π h sin − π
6 6 3 4
4 State the amplitude and period of each of the following:
θ 1
a 2 sin b −3 sin(4θ) c sin(3θ)
2 2
 x 2  2x 
d −3 cos(2x) e −4 sin f sin
3 3 3
5 Sketch the graph of each of the following (showing one cycle):
 x
a y = 2 sin(2x) b y = −3 cos c y = −2 sin(3x)
3
 x  π  2π 
d y = 2 sin e y = sin x − f y = sin x +
3 4 3
 5π   π
g y = 2 cos x − h y = −3 cos x +
6 6
6 Solve each of the following equations for θ:
√ √
3 3
a sin θ = − , θ ∈ [−π, π] b sin(2θ) = − , θ ∈ [−π, π]
2 2
 π 1  π
c sin θ − = − , θ ∈ [0, 2π] d sin θ + = −1, θ ∈ [0, 2π]
3 2 3
π  1
e sin − θ = − , θ ∈ [0, 2π]
3 2

Multiple-choice questions

1 In a right-angled triangle, the two shorter side lengths are 3 cm and 4 cm. To the nearest
degree, the magnitude of the smallest angle is
A 1◦ B 23◦ C 37◦ D 53◦ E 92◦

2 The minimum value of 3 − 10 cos(2x) is

A −13 B −17 C −23 D −7 E −10
 π
3 The range of the function f : [0, 2π] → R, f (x) = 4 sin 2x − is
2
A R B [0, 4] C [−4, 0] D [0, 8] E [−4, 4]
1 
4 The period of the graph of y = 3 sin x − π + 4 is
2
A π B 3 C 4π D π+4 E 2π
ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press
Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 522 Chapter 14: Circular functions

1 π
Review

5 The graph of y = sin x is dilated by factor from the y-axis and translated units in
2 4
the positive direction of the x-axis. The equation of the image is
1 π 1 π  π
A y = sin x + B y = sin x − C y = 2 sin x −
2 4 2 4 4
 π   π 
D y = sin 2x − E y = sin 2 x −
4 4
6 Let f : R → R, f (x) = a sin(bx) + c, where a, b and c are positive constants. The period
of the function f is
2π 2π b
A a B b C D E
a b 2π
π π
7 One cycle of the graph of y = tan(ax) has vertical asymptotes at x = − and x = .
6 6
A possible value of a is
π 1
A 6 B π C D E 3
6 3
8 The equation 3 sin(x) + 1 = b, where b is a positive real number, has one solution in the
interval [0, 2π]. The value of b is
A 1 B 1.5 C 2 D 3 E 4

9 The number of solutions of the equation b = a sin x, where x ∈ [−2π, 2π] and a and b
are positive real numbers with a > b, is
A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 E 6

10 The depth of water,

 πt in metres, in a harbour at a certain point at time t hours is given by
D(t) = 8 + 2 sin , 0 ≤ t ≤ 24. The depth of the water is first 9 m at
6
A t=0 B t=1 C t=2 D t=3 E t=4

Extended-response questions

The number of hours of daylight

 1  at a point on the Antarctic Circle is modelled by the
CAS
1
1 
function d = 12 + 12 cos π t + , where t is the number of months which have
6 3
elapsed since 1 January.
a i Find d on 21 June (t ≈ 5.7). ii Find d on 21 March (t ≈ 2.7).
b When will there be 5 hours of daylight?

2 The temperature, A◦ C, inside a house at t hours after 4 a.m. is given by the rule
 πt 
A = 21 − 3 cos , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24. The temperature, B◦ C, outside the house at the same
12  πt 
time is given by the rule B = 22 − 5 cos , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
12
a Find the temperature inside the house at 8 a.m.
b Write down an expression for D = A − B, the difference between the inside and
outside temperatures.
c Sketch the graph of D for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
d Determine when the inside temperature is less than the outside temperature.
ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press
Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 Chapter 14 review 523

Review
At a certain time of the year the depth of water, d metres, in the harbour at Bunk Island

CAS
3
is given by the rule
π 
d = 3 + 1.8 cos t
6
where t is the time in hours after 3 a.m.
a Sketch the graph of d against t for a 24-hour period from 3 a.m. to 3 a.m.
b At what time(s) does high tide occur for t ∈ [0, 24]?
c At what time(s) does low tide occur for t ∈ [0, 24]?
A passenger ferry operates between Main Beach and Bunk Island. It takes 50 minutes
to go from Main Beach to Bunk Island. The ferry only runs between the hours of
8 a.m. and 8 p.m., and is only able to enter the harbour at Bunk Island if the depth of
water is at least 2 metres.
d What is the earliest time the ferry should leave Main Beach so that it arrives at Bunk
Island and can immediately enter the harbour?
e The time to go from Bunk Island to Main Beach is also 50 minutes. The minimum
time the ferry takes at Bunk Island harbour is 5 minutes. The minimum time at Main
Beach is also 5 minutes.
i What is the latest time the ferry can leave Main Beach to complete a round trip in
105 minutes?
ii How many complete round trips can the ferry make in a day?

4 The depth of water, D metres, at the end of Brighton pier t hours after low tide is given
by the rule D = p − 2 cos(rt), where p and r are suitable constants.
At low tide (t = 0) the depth is 2 metres; at high tide, which occurs 8 hours later, the
depth is 6 metres.
π
a Show that r = and p = 4.
8 π 
b Sketch the graph of D = 4 − 2 cos t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 16.
8
c If the first low tide occurs at 4 a.m., when will the next low tide occur?
d At what times will the depth be equal to 4 metres?
The poles that support the Brighton pier stand 7.5 metres above the sea bed.
e How much of a particular pole is exposed at:
i high tide ii 2 p.m.?
Over the years mussels have attached themselves to the pole. A particular mussel is
attached 4 metres from the top of the pole so that some of the time it is exposed and
some of the time it is covered by water.
f For how long will the mussel be covered by water during the time from one low tide
to the next?

ISBN 978-1-009-11045-7 © Michael Evans et al 2022 Cambridge University Press

Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.