1

Introduction
This book is designed for AS and A level Pure Mathematics (9709).

This contains the Modularised Algebra content, designed for both self-learning and
guided learning.

Most of the topics are of AS level and few topics are of A2 level but which are
related to and the continuation of AS level topics.

The higher order questions in this book has been taken from CIE 9709 past
papers so that the students might get exposure to the past papers in their
learning level itself.

This book covers each and every topic of the 9709 syllabus and even little more.

All the topics are explained pin-pointedly in this book and students are advised to
read each and every minute detail in the book.

Few activities are given here and there for motivating learning through
activities and the following Exercises will be based on these activities. Hence
students are advised to do those activities given under “TO DO”.

There are worked examples before all the exercises. Problems have been worked
using methods which are applicable for CIE. Hence, learners should go through all
the examples before starting the exercises.

At the end of each unit, a detailed checklist is given. After finishing the unit, go
through the check list and confirm whether you have completed all the topics.
All the best, learners.

- Balamurugan .T
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Contents
Unit - I ......................................................................................... 4
Quadratics ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
What is a Quadratic Equation? ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Understanding and identifying quadratic equations: .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Factorising quadratic equations: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Completing the Square: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Sketching quadratics: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Finding vertex using “Completing the square” method: ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Solutions or roots of the quadratic equation: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Forming the equation if the roots are known:....................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Quadratic Inequalities: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Modulus functions: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Nature of roots:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Equations reducible to quadratic equations:......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Intersection between a line and a curve: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 18

Unit - II ...................................................................................... 21
Functions ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
What are functions?............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Functions notation: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Function Representation: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Conditions for a function: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Defining a function:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Domain of a function: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Range of a function: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Types of functions: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
One - one functions: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Horizontal Line Test for testing one-one functions: .............................................................................................................................................................. 30
Piecewise functions: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Combining two functions: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Notation of Composition of functions: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Conditions for Composition of two functions:....................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Inverse of a function: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Notation of Inverse of a function: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Domain and range of inverse functions: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Conditions for Inverse: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Finding the Inverse:................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Graphical relationship between 𝒇(𝒙)𝒙 and 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙): ............................................................................................................................................................. 37

Quadratic functions ......................................................................................................................................... 39

Domain and Range of a quadratic function: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Inverse of Quadratic functions: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39

Unit - III .................................................................................... 44

Transformations of Functions .......................................................................................................................... 44
Transformations: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Translations: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Reflection: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 47
Stretches: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 49

Answers ....................................................................................... 54
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Module Summary ............................................................................. 62

Quadratics ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
Functions ......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Transformations of functions ........................................................................................................................... 64
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Unit - I
Quadratics
What is a Quadratic Equation?
Definition: Equations whose degree is 2 are called Quadratic equations.
Hence, we are sure that, there will not be any terms with degrees more than two. But the equations might have
terms with lower degrees.
Hence, we can define a general form for Quadratic equations as follows.

𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
Understanding and identifying quadratic equations:
Is 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 = 𝟎, a quadratic equation?
Of course, yes, because it has degree 2 no other higher powers. Missing the lower terms is not an issue.
What about the following equation?
1 2
− =1
𝑥−1 𝑥+2
We are not able to conclude whether this equation is quadratic or not.
We will try to simplify this equation first.
𝑥 + 2 − 2(𝑥 − 1)
=1
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
3−𝑥
=1
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
3 − 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥2 − 5 = 0
Now we can assure that this is a quadratic equation.
Check whether the following equation is quadratic or not?
𝑥 1
− =1
𝑥+1 𝑥−1
We can conclude that, only by simplifying the given equation we can decide the type of the equation.

Factorising quadratic equations:

What do you mean by factors?
What are the factors of 12?
4 and 3? or 6 and 2? or 2,2 and 3?
All are correct answers.
When two or more numbers multiplied together to form a number, say 𝑥, then those numbers are called the
factors of 𝑥.
All the factors of 𝑥 are lesser than or equal to 𝑥.
Similarly, algebraic expressions also have their own factors.
The factor expressions will have degree less than or equal to the degree of their original expression.
 5

Hence a linear expression might have a constant and linear factor.

For example,
4𝑥 − 10 = 2(2𝑥 − 5)
Here, 2 and 2𝑥 − 5 are the factors of the expression 4𝑥 − 10.

TODO: Now answer the following:

1. The factors of 2𝑥 − 34 are ______________ and ______________.
2. The factors of 3𝑥 − 5 are ______________ and ______________.
3. The factors of 5𝑥 are ______________ and ______________.

A quadratic expression might have a constant, linear or a quadratic factor.

In this unit, we will focus only on factorising quadratic expressions.
Say, a quadratic 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 can be written as the multiple of two linear factors (𝒙 + 𝜶), (𝒙 + 𝜷).
Then while multiplying both (𝑥 + 𝛼 ), (𝑥 + 𝛽 ) we should get the original quadratic, that is
𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝛼 ) × (𝑥 + 𝛽 )
= 𝑥 2 + (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽
Hence it is clear that coefficient of 𝑥, 𝑎 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 and the constant term 𝑏 = 𝛼𝛽.
So, if we find the two numbers whose product gives the constant term(𝑏) and whose sum gives the coefficient
of 𝑥(𝑎), then it will be easier to write the factors of a quadratic equation.

Example I – 1: Factorise 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟒.

All the three terms of this quadratic contain 2 as a common factor.
Hence the expressions can be written as 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7)
Is it possible to factorise the quadratic 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7 further?
Are there any two numbers whose product is 7 and sum is 2? No.
So, it’s not possible to factorise this expression further.
∴ 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 14 = 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7)

Example I – 2: Factorise 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐.

Let’s find two numbers which multiply to give 𝟏𝟐 and sum to give −𝟕.
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 = (𝒙+? )(𝒙+? )
(𝟏, 𝟏𝟐), (−𝟏, −𝟏𝟐), (𝟐, 𝟔), (−𝟐, −𝟔), (𝟑, 𝟒), (−𝟑, −𝟒)
These are the two numbers which while multiplying give 𝟏𝟐. But only (−𝟑, −𝟒) add to give −𝟕.
Hence, we can now rewrite the quadratic as follows:
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐
Taking 𝒙 common from the first two terms and −𝟒 common from the next two terms,
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝒙(𝒙 − 𝟑) − 𝟒(𝒙 − 𝟑)
Now taking 𝒙 − 𝟑 common from the two terms,
∴ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 = (𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟒)
Hence (𝒙 − 𝟑) and (𝒙 − 𝟒) are the two factors of 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐.
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Now let us learn how to factorise the quadratic expression of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄.
Say (𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒) and (𝒓𝒙 + 𝒔) are the two linear factors of the quadratic 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄.
So, the product of the two linear factors should arrive at the quadratic expression as follows.
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = (𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒)(𝒓𝒙 + 𝒔)
= 𝒑𝒓𝒙𝟐 + (𝒑𝒔 + 𝒒𝒓)𝒙 + 𝒒𝒔
Comparing the coefficient of 𝒙 on both sides, we have
𝒃 = 𝒑𝒔 + 𝒒𝒓
Multiplying 𝒑𝒔 and 𝒒𝒓, we get
𝒑𝒔 × 𝒒𝒓 = 𝒑𝒓 × 𝒒𝒔 = 𝒂 × 𝒄
Hence, we are supposed to find the two numbers which add up to 𝒃 and multiply to 𝒂𝒄.

Example I – 3: Factorise 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕.

Let’s find two numbers which multiply to give 𝟐 × −𝟕 = −𝟏𝟒 and sum to give 𝟓.
The two numbers are 𝟕 and −𝟐.
We have to split the middle term as 𝟓𝒙 = 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙
Hence, the factorising process will be as follows:
𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕
Factorising first two terms and last two term individually,
= 𝒙(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕) − 𝟏(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕)
= (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕)(𝒙 − 𝟏)

Example I – 4: Factorise 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟖.

Taking 𝟑 as common factor,
𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟖 = 𝟑(𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟔)
Splitting the middle term as 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔𝒙, since 𝟓 − 𝟔 = −𝟏 and 𝟓 × −𝟔 = −𝟑𝟎,
= 𝟑(𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟔)
= 𝟑{𝟓𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏) − 𝟔(𝒙 + 𝟏)}
𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟖 = 𝟑(𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔)(𝒙 + 𝟏)

Exercise I-1
Factorise the following quadratic expressions:
1. 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐𝟐 2. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝟕 3. 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎
4. 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝟓 5. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟏𝟖 6. 𝟕𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏
7. 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏 8. 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟏 9. 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟕𝒙 − 𝟔
10. 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟐
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Completing the Square:

Expansion of (𝒙 + 𝒂)𝟐 = (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒂) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐
Reversely we can write the quadratic 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 as (𝒙 + 𝒂)𝟐 .
Also, we can write 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 as (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 .
We know that 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟐 , 𝟗 = 𝟑𝟐 , 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟒𝟐 etc are called square numbers.
Similarly, the quadratic expressions which can be written as a whole square are called complete squares.
What if the given quadratic is not a complete square?
For example, consider the quadratic 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟕. This is not a complete square.
Consider 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 alone and compare with 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒙.
𝟐𝒂𝒙 = 𝟔𝒙 ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝟑
Hence, 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟑𝟐 ⇒ (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 = (𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐
Now we can rewrite the quadratic 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟕 as
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟑𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟕 (𝑾𝒉𝒚 𝒅𝒐 𝒘𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒅 − 𝟑𝟐 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆? )
= (𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐 − 𝟗 + 𝟕
= (𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐 − 𝟐
Hence, we can conclude that any quadratic can be written in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄.
This is called as “Completing the square method”.

Example I – 5: Write the quadratic 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄.

𝟑
𝟐𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 ⇒ 𝒂 =
𝟐

𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + ( ) − ( ) + 𝟓
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟗
= (𝒙 + ) − + 𝟓
𝟐 𝟒
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏𝟏
= (𝒙 + ) +
𝟐 𝟒
Alternate method:
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 ⇔ 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 ⇔ 𝒂(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒃𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 ) + 𝒄
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 ⇔ 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒙 + 𝒂𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄
Comparing the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 : 𝒂=𝟏
Comparing the coefficient of 𝒙 : 𝟐𝒂𝒃 = 𝟑 ⇒ 𝒃 = 𝟑⁄𝟐

Comparing the constant terms : 𝒂𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝟓 ⇒ 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟏⁄𝟒

Applying the values of 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄:

𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏𝟏
𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 ⇔ (𝒙 + ) +
𝟐 𝟒
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Example I – 6: Write the quadratic 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏 in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄.

First taking 𝟐 as a factor,
𝟓 𝟏
𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + )
𝟐 𝟐
Now,
𝟓 𝟓
𝟐𝒂𝒙 = 𝒙⇒𝒂=
𝟐 𝟒
𝟐 𝟐
𝟓 𝟏 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟏
𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + ) = 𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + ( ) − ( ) + )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐

𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟕 𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟕
= 𝟐 ((𝒙 − ) − ) ⇒ 𝟐 (𝒙 − ) −
𝟒 𝟏𝟔 𝟒 𝟖

TO DO: Try using the alternate method.

Example I – 7: Write the quadratic 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 in the form 𝒄 − (𝒙 + 𝒂)𝟐 .

First taking −𝟏 as a factor,
𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = −(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑)
Now,
𝟐𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝟏
−(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑) = −(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟑)
= −((𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟒)
= 𝟒 − (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐

If the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 is a square number, then we can write the quadratic expression in the form
(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄
Here (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 = (𝒂𝒙)𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 .
Example I – 8: Write the quadratic 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟏 in the form (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄 .
Here (𝒂𝒙)𝟐 = (𝟐𝒙)𝟐 ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝟐 and 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒙 = 𝒙 ⇒ 𝟒𝒃 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒃 = 𝟏⁄𝟒
Hence,

𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙 + 𝟏 = (𝟐𝒙 )𝟐 −𝒙+( ) −( ) +𝟏
𝟒 𝟒
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝟓
= (𝟐𝒙 − ) +
𝟒 𝟏𝟔
Alternate method:
𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟏 ⇔ (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄
𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟏 ⇔ 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄
Comparing the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 : 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟒 ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝟐
Comparing the coefficient of 𝒙 : 𝟐𝒂𝒃 = −𝟏 ⇒ 𝒃 = − 𝟏⁄𝟒

Comparing the constant terms : 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟓⁄𝟏𝟔

 9

Applying the values of 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄:

𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝟓
𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙 + 𝟏 ⇔ (𝟐𝒙 − ) +
𝟒 𝟏𝟔

Exercise I-2
Write the following quadratic expressions in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄:
1. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟑𝟐 2. 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟕 3. 𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐
4. 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 5. 𝟕 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 6. 𝟒 + 𝟔𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐
Write the following quadratic expressions in the form (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄:
7. 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 8. 𝟗𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎
Write the following quadratic expressions in the form 𝒄 − (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 :
9. 𝟓 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 10. 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐
Write the following quadratic expressions in the form 𝒂 − (𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 :
11. 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 12. 𝟏𝟕 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 13. 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐
Write the following quadratic expressions in the form 𝒂 − 𝒃(𝒙 + 𝒄)𝟐 :
14. 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 15. 𝟏 − 𝟑𝟎𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐

Sketching quadratics:
Have you ever plotted the graph of the quadratic equation 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄?
The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟕 is shown here.
The curve is parabola in shape with vertex at (𝟑, −𝟐).
Vertex is the minimum point on the curve.
It is also called as the turning point or the stationary point.
The line 𝒙 = 𝟑 divides the curve into two symmetrical parts.
This line is called the axis of symmetry.

The graph of 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟕 is shown here.

The curve is parabola in shape with vertex at (𝟑, 𝟐).
Vertex is the maximum point on the curve.
It is also called as the turning point or the stationary point.
The line 𝒙 = 𝟑 is the axis of symmetry.
 10

Finding vertex using “Completing the square” method:

The “completing the square” form of 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 is given by (𝑥 − 3)2 − 2. Hence,
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)2 − 2
We know that, (𝑥 − 3)2 is always greater than or equal to zero for all values of 𝑥, because it is a complete
square. That is,
(𝑥 − 3)2 ≥ 0
Subtracting 2 from both sides,
(𝑥 − 3)2 − 2 ≥ 0 − 2
𝑦 ≥ −2
This shows that the minimum value of 𝑦 is −2.
We know that, vertex is the minimum point of the Parabola, whose 𝑦 value is the least.
Hence, the 𝑦 − coordinate of the vertex is −2. To find the 𝑥 − coordinate of the vertex, we shall apply 𝑦 =
−2 in the equation,
−2 = (𝑥 − 3)2 − 2 ⇒ (𝑥 − 3)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3.
Hence, the vertex is (3, −2).
Hence, we can use the “Completing the square” method to find the vertex of the Parabola for any quadratic
expression.
Say, a quadratic expression can be represented as 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐. By equating the complete square part to
zero, we can find the 𝑥 − coordinate of the vertex as follows:
(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝒙 = −𝒃
Because the complete square part is equal to zero, then the 𝑦 − coordinate of the vertex is equal to 𝒄.
Hence, the vertex of the parabola is (−𝒃, 𝒄).

Note:
• For the quadratic in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄, the vertex is at (−𝒃, 𝒄) and the line of symmetry is
𝒙 = −𝒃.
𝒃
• For the quadratic in the form (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄, the vertex is at (− , 𝒄) and the line of symmetry is
𝒂
𝒃
𝒙=− .
𝒂
• For the quadratic 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄, if 𝒂 > 𝟎, then the shape of the curve is open upwards and
the vertex is the minimum point of the curve.
• For the quadratic 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄, if 𝒂 < 𝟎, then the shape of the curve is open downwards and
the vertex is the maximum point of the curve.

Exercise I-3
Find the vertex of the following quadratic equations. State, whether the vertex is either the maximum
point or the minimum point. Also sketch the graph of the quadratic curve:
1. 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟒 2. 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑 3. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟗
4. 𝒚 = 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 5. 𝒚 = −𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟔𝒙 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐
 11

Solutions or roots of the quadratic equation:

We know that, the solutions or roots of an equation are the values of the unknowns those satisfy the equations.
For example, for the quadratic equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎, the values of 𝒙, for which the value of 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +
𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 becomes zero are the solutions.
The number of solutions or roots depends on the degree of the equation.
All the quadratic equations have two solutions.
All the cubic equations have three solutions.
Now let us try to solve the quadratic equation 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕 = 𝟎.
We know the two forms of a quadratic expressions.
• Factorised expression form.
• Completing the square form.
Let us try these two forms to solve the quadratic equation.
Solving by factorisation:
𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕 = 𝟎
After factorising,
(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕)(𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟎
Here the quadratic value depends on the product of two linear factors.
So to make the value of the quadratic as zero, the value of any one of the factor should become zero.
Hence,
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕 = 𝟎 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟕
∴𝒙=− (𝒐𝒓) 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟐
Hence the solutions are 𝒙 = − 𝟕⁄𝟐 , 𝟏
Solving by “Completing the square” method:
The “completing the square” form of the equation is
𝟓 𝟐 𝟖𝟏
𝟐 (𝒙 + ) − =𝟎
𝟒 𝟖
𝟓 𝟐 𝟖𝟏 𝟓 𝟐 𝟖𝟏
𝟐 (𝒙 + ) = ⇒ (𝒙 + ) =
𝟒 𝟖 𝟒 𝟏𝟔
𝟓 𝟗
𝒙+ =±
𝟒 𝟒
𝟗 𝟓 𝟗 𝟓
𝒙= − (𝐨𝐫) 𝒙 = − −
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
𝟕
𝒙 = 𝟏 (𝐨𝐫) −
𝟐

Shall we try to find a formula, which can be used to find the solutions of the quadratic equations?
 12

The quadratic equation is

𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
We will use “completing the square” for this:
𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 (𝑥 2 + ( ) 𝑥 + ) = 0
𝑎 𝑎

2
𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑐
𝑎 (𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥+ ( ) − ( ) + ) = 0
𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑎 ((𝑥 + ) − 2 + ) = 0
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2
𝑎 (𝑥 + ) = −𝑐
2𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎 (𝑥 + ) =
2𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
(𝑥 + ) =
2𝑎 4𝑎2
𝑏 ±√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝒙=
𝟐𝒂
This is called the quadratic formula.
Though you are familiar with this formula, hope you enjoyed deriving it now.
Forming the equation if the roots are known:
How to find the equation of the quadratic when the roots are known?
Say the roots of a quadratic equation are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Hence the quadratic equation has the factors as 𝑥 − 𝛼 and
𝑥 − 𝛽. Therefore the equation of the quadratic can be written as
(𝑥 − 𝛼 )(𝑥 − 𝛽 ) = 0
𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
We shall now make the equation of the quadratic as
𝒙𝟐 − (𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐬)𝒙 + 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐬 = 𝟎

Example I – 9: Form the quadratic equation whose roots are −𝟔 and 𝟗.

Sum of the roots = 3; product of the roots = −54.
Hence the equation of the quadratic is 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 54 = 0

𝟑
Example I – 10: Form the quadratic equation whose roots are − and 𝟏.
𝟐
Sum of the roots = −1/2; product of the roots = −3/2.
Hence the equation of the quadratic is
1 3
𝑥 + 𝑥 − = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0
2
2 2
 13

Exercise I-4
Solve the following quadratic equations by factorisation method:
1. 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 247 = 0 2. 16𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 3 = 0 3. 𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 49 = 0
Solve the following quadratic equations by “completing the square” method:
4. 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 11 = 0 5. 6𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 0 6. 3𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 − 5 = 0
Solve the following quadratic equations by using the quadratic formula:
7. 𝑥 2 + √3𝑥 − 6 = 0 8. 2𝑥 2 + 5√3𝑥 − 9 = 0 9. 2𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 − 135 = 0
Find the equation of the quadratics whose roots are given below:
10. −3,5 11. −1, −7 12. 6, 5 13. 8, −11
14. −9/2,3 15. 4/5, −1/2

Quadratic Inequalities:
This topic deals with solving the inequalities including quadratic expressions like
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 < 𝟎 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 > 𝟎
Always, we have a set of solutions for the inequalities both in linear and quadratics.
For example, consider the inequality 𝟓 − 𝟐𝒙 < 𝟑:
−2𝑥 < −2
𝑥>1
Hence the solutions are all the set of numbers that are greater than 1.
To Think:
Why did the < sign change into > sign in the above example?
Fill the gaps in the following with proper inequality sign.
−𝟏𝟎 ____________ −𝟓
𝟏𝟎 ____________ 𝟓
−𝟐 ____________ 𝟑
𝟐 ____________ −𝟑
Can we conclude that, whenever the sign changes on both sides of an inequality, then
the inequality sign also changes as well?

The solutions of the inequality 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 are the set of values of 𝑥 for which 𝑦 > 0, that is the positive
𝑦 − axis, which is above 𝑥 − axis.
Similarly, the solutions of the inequality 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 are the set of values of 𝑥 for which 𝑦 < 0, that is
the negative 𝑦 − axis, which is below 𝑥 − axis.
Let us learn this concept through an example:
 14

Example I – 11: Solve: 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟐 > 𝟎

The graph of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 is shown here.
The roots of this equation are 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 1.
The roots are the values of 𝑥 at which the curve meets the
𝑥 − axis that is where 𝑦 = 0.
From the graph, it is clear that,
• when 𝑥 < −2, the curve lies above 𝑥 − axis, that is
𝑦>0
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 > 0
• when 𝑥 > 1, the curve lies above 𝑥 − axis, that is
𝑦>0
2
𝑥 +𝑥−2>0
• when −2 < 𝑥 < 1, the curve lies below 𝑥 − axis, that is
𝑦<0
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 < 0
Hence the solutions for the inequality 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 > 0 are 𝒙 < −𝟐 and 𝒙 > 𝟏.
What are the solutions for the inequality 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟐 < 𝟎?
Note:
To solve the quadratic inequality,
• First find the roots of the quadratic equation.
• Say the roots are 𝒑 and 𝒒 in ascending order.
• Now the solution set for the inequality 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 > 𝟎 are 𝒙 < 𝒑, 𝒙 > 𝒒
• And the solution set for the inequality 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 < 𝟎 are 𝒑 < 𝒙 < 𝒒

Example I – 12: Solve: 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕 < 𝟎

The roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7 = 0 are − 7⁄2 and 1.

Hence the solution set of 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7 < 0 is − 7⁄2 < 𝑥 < 1.

Example I – 13: Solve: (𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝟒 − 𝒙) ≥ 𝟎
−(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) ≥ 0
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) ≤ 0
The roots of the equation (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) = 0 are −3 and 4.
Hence, the solution set of (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) ≤ 0 is −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.

Exercise I-5
Solve the following quadratic inequalities:
1. 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 > 0 2. 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 < 0 3. 15 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ≤ 0
4. 2𝑥 2 − 18 ≥ 0 5. 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 6. 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 < 0
7. 12𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 > 0 8. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) < 0 9. (𝑥 + 1)(5 − 𝑥) ≤ 0
10. 𝑥 2 − 289 > 0
 15

Modulus functions:
Modulus is the operator which always gives positive value.
For example, 1 − 11 = −10 ⇒ |1 − 11| = 10.
Whenever we need a positive answer, we use modulus operator.

For example, to find the distance between two points on 𝑥 − axis (𝑥1 , 0) and (𝑥2 , 0),
√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (0 − 0)2 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
But what if 𝑥2 < 𝑥1 ? Hence the answer might be negative also but the distance should not be a negative
value. Hence, we can make this formula a generic one such as
𝑑 = |𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |

Another example where modulus is used for is solving 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 = 𝟎.

We know that the roots of this equation are −2 and 2.
Instead of writing the answer as 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2, we can write it as |𝑥 | = 2.
Hence modulus of 𝑥, |𝑥 | = ±𝑥.

In this unit, we will learn how to solve equations and inequalities involving modulus expressions.

Example I – 14: Solve |𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏| < 𝟓

|2𝑥 + 1| = ±(2𝑥 + 1)
2𝑥 + 1 < 5 & − (2𝑥 + 1) < 5
2𝑥 < 4 & − 2𝑥 < 6
𝑥<2 & 𝑥 > −3
Hence the solution is −3 < 𝑥 < 2

Example I – 15: Solve |𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏| < 𝟑𝒙

If both sides of the inequalities or equations have expressions but modulus on either side, then there will be
only one set of solutions.
2𝑥 − 1 < 3𝑥 & − 2𝑥 + 1 < 3𝑥
−𝑥 < 1 & − 5𝑥 < −1
1
𝑥 > −1 & 𝑥>
5
In these two sets of solutions only one set is correct. To test the solutions:
Solution set Test value Checking
𝑥 > −1 𝑥=0 |−1| < 0 ⇒ 1 < 0 Not the solution
𝑥 > 1⁄5 𝑥=1 |2 − 1 | < 3 ⇒ 1 < 3 Solution

Therefore, the solution is 𝑥 > 1⁄5

 16

Example I – 16: Solve |𝒙 + 𝟏| < |𝟐𝒙|

If modulus is on both sides of the equation or inequality, then just squaring on both sides will make the
modulus invalid.
(𝑥 + 1)2 < (2𝑥 )2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 < 4𝑥 2 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 > 0
(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) > 0
1
𝑥 < − ,𝑥 > 1
3

Exercise I-6
Solve the following inequalities:
1. |𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏| < 𝟐 2. |𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑| > 𝟓 3. |𝟒 − 𝟓𝒙| < 𝟑
4. |𝒙 − 𝟐| > 𝟑|𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏| 5. |𝒙 + 𝟑| > |𝟐𝒙| 6. 𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 < |𝒙 − 𝟑|
1
7. |𝑥 + 3𝑎| > 2|𝑥 − 2𝑎| 8. |𝑥 + 2| > | 𝑥 − 2|
2

Nature of roots:
Now we will try to analyse the roots of the quadratic equations graphically.
We solved the equation 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7 = 0 and
got the roots 𝑥 = −3.5 and 𝑥 = 1
The graph of the equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7 and the roots
are shown in the figure. It is clear that the roots are the values of 𝑥
at which the graph intersects the 𝑥 − axis where 𝑦 = 0.
Now think about the following scenarios,
• what if the curve just touches the 𝑥 − axis at a point or
• it never touches or intersects the 𝑥 − axis.

If the curve just touches the 𝑥 − axis at a point then there might be only one root. But we learned that the
quadratic equations have two roots, hence, we can say that the two roots are equal.
If the curve never touches the 𝑥 − axis, then we can conclude that
there are no roots for the equation.
The graphs of three different quadratic equations are shown here.
• The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖 meets the 𝒙 − axis at
two different points 𝒙 = 𝟐 and 𝒙 = 𝟒. That shows that
it has two solutions.
• The graph 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 touches the 𝒙 − axis at 𝒙 = −𝟏.
Hence it has two equal roots or only one root.
• The graph of 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎 doesn’t touch or
intersects the 𝒙 − axis. Hence it has no roots.
 17

How can we conclude this without drawing the graph?

We know that the roots of the quadratic equations is given by the formula
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
The value of 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 determines the nature of roots of the quadratic equation. How?
If the value of 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 is 𝟎, then 𝑥 = − 𝑏⁄2𝑎 only. Only one root is possible.

If the value of 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 is a positive value, then √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 will be a real number say 𝐷. Then we have two
distinct roots as
−𝑏 + 𝐷 −𝑏 − 𝐷
𝑥= (𝑜𝑟) 𝑥 =
2𝑎 2𝑎
If the value of 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 is a negative value, then there is no real value of √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. Hence there are no
real roots for the equation.
Let us now try these conditions with the quadratic equations whose graphs are shown in the above figure.
Starting with 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8, where 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −6, 𝑐 = 8,
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−6)2 − 4 × 1 × 8 = 4 > 0
Since 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 𝟎, there are two real distinct roots.
Next with 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1, where 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 1,
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (2)2 − 4 × 1 × 1 = 0
Since 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎, there are two real equal roots.
Now for 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 10, where 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = −6, 𝑐 = −10,
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−6)2 − 4 × −1 × −10 = −4 < 0
Since 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎, there are no real roots.
The factor 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called as the discriminant of quadratic equation.
The rules can be summarised as follows:

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 Quadratic equation has two distinct real roots

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 Quadratic equation has two equal real roots or it has only one real root.
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 Quadratic equation has no real roots

Exercise I-7
I Determine the nature of the roots of the quadratic equations given below:
1. 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0 2. 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0 3. 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
4. 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0 5. 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0 6. 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0
II Find the value(s) of 𝒑 so that the following equations have equal roots:
1. 2𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 1 = 0 2. 𝑝𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5 = 0 3. 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0
III Show that the value of 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟕 is never negative.
[Hint: Show that this curve always lies above 𝑥 − axis and have no roots]
IV Show that the value of −𝟏 − 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 is never positive.
 18

Equations reducible to quadratic equations:

Some equations can be reduced to the quadratic form and can be solved easily.

Example I – 17: Solve 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟓𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑𝟔.

By applying 𝑥 2 = 𝑡, the equation can be reduced as follows:
𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 − 36 = 0
Solving for 𝑡, we get 𝑡 = 4 and 𝑡 = −9. Since 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 ,
𝑥 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2
𝑥 2 = −9 ⇒ no real roots
Hence the solution for the equation is 𝑥 = 2, −2.

Example I – 18: Solve 𝟐𝒙 − √𝒙 − 𝟑 = 𝟎.

By applying √𝑥 = 𝑡, the equation can be reduced as follows:
2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 − 3 = 0
3
Solving for 𝑡, we get 𝑡 = −1 and 𝑡 = . Since 𝑡 = √𝑥,
2
√𝑥 = −1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1
3 9
√𝑥 = ⇒𝑥=
2 4
9
Hence the solution for the equation is 𝑥 = 1, .
4

Exercise I-8
Solve the following equations:
6 11
1. 𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 2 + 64 = 0 2. 𝑥 − 7√𝑥 − 30 = 0 3. 2− +3 = 0
𝑥 𝑥
3 3
6 3
4. 𝑥 − 7𝑥 − 8 = 0 5. 𝑥 + 19𝑥 − 116 = 0
2 4 6. √𝑥 + 𝑥 − 42 = 0

Intersection between a line and a curve:

How will we find the intersection point between the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 10 and the curve 𝑥𝑦 = 8?
Intersection point is the common point for both the line and the curve.
Hence to find the intersection point, we should solve the equations.
From the line equation, 𝑦 = 10 − 2𝑥.
Substituting this expression for 𝑦 in the curve equation, 𝑥 (10 − 2𝑥 ) = 8
10𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 − 8 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 0
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4, 1
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 10 − 2 × 1 = 8, which gives the point (1, 8).
When 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 10 − 2 × 4 = 2, which gives the point (4, 2).
Hence the line intersects the curve at two points (1, 8) and (4, 2).

We solved a quadratic equation to find the intersecting points of the curve and the line.
 19

The question is, what if, there are no solutions for the quadratic?
Will the conditions for nature of roots of the quadratic equations apply here?
The answer is, yes.
The rules can be summarised as follows:

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 Line intersects the curve at two points.

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 Line touches the curve or Line is the tangent to the curve.
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 Line neither touches nor intersects the curve.

Now shall we use the above rules to find the condition that the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑘 does not intersect the curve
𝑥𝑦 = 8?
From line, 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 2𝑥
From curve, 𝑥 (𝑘 − 2𝑥 ) = 8 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 𝑘𝑥 + 8 = 0
Here, 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −𝑘, 𝑐 = 8
For the line does not intersect the curve,
𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎
𝑘 2 − 4 × 2 × 8 < 0 ⇒ 𝑘 2 − 64 < 0
(𝑘 + 8)(𝑘 − 8) < 0
−8 < 𝑘 < 8
For all the values of 𝑘 between −8 and 8 the line does not intersect the curve.

Exercise I-9
2
1. The curve 𝑦 = and the line 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4 meet at points A and B. Find the coordinates of A and B.
1−𝑥

2. The line 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0 intersects the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 at points 𝑃 and 𝑄. Find the coordinates
of 𝑃 and 𝑄.
3. Find the set of values of 𝑘 for which the line 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 − 4 intersects the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 at two distinct
points.

4. The curve 𝑦 = 7√𝑥 and the line 𝑦 = 6𝑥 + 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a constant, are given. Find the value of 𝑘 for
which the line is tangent to the curve.
𝑥
5. The line 𝑦 = +𝑘, where 𝑘 is a constant, is a tangent to the curve 4𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the point 𝑃. Find the value
𝑘
of 𝑘 and the coordinates of 𝑃.
2
6. A straight line has equation 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a constant, and a curve has equation 𝑦 = .
𝑥−3
Show that the x-coordinates of any points of intersection of the line and curve are given by the equation
2𝑥 2 − (6 + 𝑘)𝑥 + (2 + 3𝑘) = 0. Find how many tangents are possible with gradient −2.
7. A curve has equation 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 1 and a line has equation 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥, where 𝑘 is a constant. Find the set
of values of 𝑘 for which the curve and the line have no common points.
8. Find the set of values of 𝑘 for which the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑘 meets the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 2 at two
distinct points.
 20

12
9. The straight line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 14 is a tangent to the curve 𝑦 = +2 at the point 𝑃. Find the value of the
𝑥
constant 𝑚 and the coordinates of 𝑃.

10. The curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 3 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 intersect at points 𝐴, 𝑂 and 𝐵. Find the coordinates of 𝐴
and 𝐵 in an exact form.
 21

Unit - II
Functions
What are functions?
Imagine a machine, whose function is to get an input, square the input value and return the output value.

Hence this machine can get any values as input and can give the corresponding output.
How can we generalize this?
Generalising the input:
As we always do in algebra, we can set a variable for the unknown input value, say 𝑥, such that 𝑥 can have
any value.
Generalising the function of the machine:
Here we had taken the function as “squaring the input value” just for an example. But in general, the machine
can be programmed to do any combination of mathematical operations.
Some examples are:
1. 2𝑥 + 3 : Adding the constant 3 to twice the input value.
2. 𝑥2 − 1 : Subtracting one from the square of the input value
3. |𝑥 − 4| : Absolute value of the difference between the input value and 4.
Hence to define the function of the machine, we can use simple algebraic expressions. As we are declaring
the input value as 𝑥, the function will be in terms of 𝑥.
Generalising the output:
As we assigned a variable for the input, we can assign another variable for the output, say 𝑦.
Here the value of 𝑦 depends the input value 𝑥 and the function of 𝑥. Hence 𝑦 is called as dependent variable.
But the input value 𝑥 has the independence of having any range of values, it is called as independent variable.
Hence the example, we considered above, can be generalised as follows:

Some more examples for simple functions:

1. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 1
3. 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 4|
 22

Functions notation:
We are aware that the value of the output 𝑦 always depends on the value of the input 𝑥 and also the function
of the machine.
When the function is 2𝑥 + 3 the values of 𝑦 will be as follows:
When 𝑥 = 1, then the value of 𝑦 = 2 × 1 + 3 = 5;
When 𝑥 = 2, then the value of 𝑦 = 2 × 2 + 3 = 7;
When 𝑥 = 3, then the value of 𝑦 = 2 × 3 + 3 = 9;
When 𝑥 = 4, then the value of 𝑦 = 2 × 4 + 3 = 11;
When the function is 𝑥 2 − 1 the values of 𝑦 will be as follows:
When 𝑥 = 1, then the value of 𝑦 = 12 − 1 = 0;
When 𝑥 = 2, then the value of 𝑦 = 22 − 1 = 3;
When 𝑥 = 3, then the value of 𝑦 = 32 − 1 = 8;
When 𝑥 = 4, then the value of 𝑦 = 42 − 1 = 15;
What if we introduce a notation for 𝑦, to show that 𝑦 is “related to the input value 𝑥 and its function”?
Here we have the notation which satisfies the above consideration.

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑓(𝑥 ) is read as “function of 𝒙”.
If we are working with more than one function then we can name the functions as 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝑔(𝑥 ), ℎ(𝑥 ), etc.
Now the calculations shown above can be simplified as follows:
For 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3:
𝑓(1) = 2 × 1 + 3 = 5;
𝑓(2) = 2 × 2 + 3 = 7;
𝑓(3) = 2 × 3 + 3 = 9;
𝑓(4) = 2 × 4 + 3 = 11;
For 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1 :
𝑔(1) = 12 − 1 = 0;
𝑔(2) = 22 − 1 = 3;
𝑔(3) = 32 − 1 = 8;
𝑔(4) = 42 − 1 = 15;
Another way of representing the function is
𝒇 ∶ 𝒙 ↦ 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑
which is read as “𝒇 is such that 𝒙 is mapped on to 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑”.
 23

Function Representation:
Pictorial representation:
The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 4 is represented below in pictorial form for the values of 𝑥 starts from 0 to 4.

Tabular representation:
The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is represented below in tabular form for the values of 𝑥 starts from −2 to 2.

𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 3 0 −1 0 3

Graphical representation:
The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |𝑥 − 4| is represented in graphical form for the values of 𝑥 starting from 0 to 8.
 24

Conditions for a function:

1. A function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is valid, if each input value(𝑥 ) should have only one output value(𝑦).

This is a function since each input value(𝒙) has This is not a function because the input value(𝒙𝟑 )
only one output value(𝒚). has two output values(𝒚𝟑 , 𝒚𝟒 ).

2. A function is valid only when all the input values(𝑥 ) have their output values(𝑦).

This is not a function since the input value (𝒙𝟓 ) is not having any output value.
Defining a function:
We can just represent a function using the notation 𝑓(𝑥 ).
For example:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1
But “defining a function” is meant by defining the set of values of inputs and outputs along with the
representation of the function.

Domain of a function:
The domain of a function is defined as the set of values of input (𝑥) that the function is defined with.
Most of the functions are defined with the domain (input values) of all the real numbers.
For example:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1; ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Here,
∀ stands for “for all”
∈ stands for “belongs to” or “is the element of”
 25

ℝ stands for “set of Real numbers”

Hence
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1; ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ
is read as “𝑓(𝑥 ) is defined as 𝑥 2 − 1 for all 𝑥 belongs to set of Real numbers”.

In some cases, the user can restrict the domain of a function as per their requirement.
Some examples are:
1. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1; ∀𝑥 > 0: Function defined for all positive numbers
2. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6: Function defined for the values between 0 and 6 inclusive

Some functions cannot be defined for certain 𝑥 values. In those cases, the “defining of domain” becomes
necessary.
For example:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥
There are no real values for this function when 𝑥 is negative. Hence this function can be defined as
𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙; ∀𝒙 > 𝟎
Another example is
2𝑥 + 1
𝑔(𝑥 ) =
𝑥−3
This function is invalid when 𝑥 = 3. Hence this function can be defined as
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏
𝒈(𝒙) = ; ∀𝒙 ≠ 𝟑
𝒙−𝟑
Note: Functions should be always defined with proper domain.

Range of a function:
The range of a function is defined as the set of values of output[𝑓(𝑥)], those are related to the set of all the
defined domain(inputs).
For example, let us consider the function
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
The table below shows the inputs and outputs for this function.

𝒙 1 2 3 4
𝒇(𝒙) 5 7 9 11

It is clear that, the outputs range from 5 to 11.

Hence, the range of this function is 𝟓 ≤ 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝟏𝟏.
Note: Range can be easily found, by sketching the rough graph, for the given function.
Range always depends on the domain values. Hence while representing a function it is enough to define the
domain alone.
 26

Example II – 1: Find the range of the function

𝟐
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑 − ;𝒙 > 𝟏
𝒙−𝟏
It is evident that the function given above does not lie at 𝑥 = 1.
Even though the domain is 𝑥 > 1, it is necessary to check the value of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) closer to 𝑥 = 1 also since it is a
continuous function.
Fill the table below:

𝒙 1.1 1.5 2 3 10 100 1000

𝒇(𝒙)

What happens to the value of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) when 𝑥 value increases to infinity?

Draw a rough plot in the graph given below.

The blue line in the graph at 𝑥 = 1 is given to show that the curve doesn’t lie at 𝑥 = 1. This line is called the
Asymptote of the curve.
Now using the above plot, write down the range of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ).

Example II – 2: Find the range of the function

𝟐
𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑 − ;𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟑
𝒙−𝟏
Using the graph plotted in the previous example, write down the range of the function 𝑔(𝑥 ) for the given
domain.
 27

Example II – 3: Find the range of the function

𝟖
𝒉(𝒙) = + 𝟓; 𝒙 < −𝟏
(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
It is evident that the function given above does not lie at 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2.
Even though the domain is 𝑥 < −1, it is necessary to check the value of ℎ(𝑥 ) closer to 𝑥 = −1 also since it
is a continuous function.
Fill the table below:

𝒙 −1.1 −1.5 −2 −3 −10 −100 −1000

𝒉(𝒙)

What happens to the value of ℎ(𝑥 ) when 𝑥 value increases to infinity?

Draw a rough plot in the graph given below.

The red lines in the graph at 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2 are the Asymptotes of the curve.
Now using the above plot, write down the range of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ).

Example II – 4: Find the range of the function

𝟖
𝒇(𝒙) = + 𝟓; −𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
Use the graph in the previous example to plot the curve for the given domain −1 < 𝑥 < 2 and write down the
range of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ).
 28

Exercise II – 1
I Find the largest possible domain of each of the following functions:
1. √𝑥 2. √−𝑥 3. √𝑥 − 4 4. √4 − 𝑥
1 1 1
5. √𝑥 3 − 8 6. 7. 8.
𝑥−2 √𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥−1)
II Find the range of the following functions for the specified domain:
1. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 7 ; ∀𝑥 ≥ 0 2. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −5𝑥 ; ∀𝑥 ≥ 0
3. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 1 ; ∀𝑥 ≥ 0 4. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 ; 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 8
5. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3 − 2𝑥 ; −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 6. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 ; −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
III Find the range of the following functions for the specified domain:
1. (i) Find the range of the function
2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ;𝑥 > 3
𝑥−3
(ii) Find the range of the function
2
𝑔(𝑥 ) = ;3 < 𝑥 ≤ 5
𝑥−3
2. (i) Find the range of the function
3
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4 + ; 𝑥 < −1
𝑥+1
(ii) Find the range of the function
3
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 4 + ; −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑥+1
3. (i) Find the range of the function
2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ; −1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑥2 − 1
(ii) Find the range of the function
2
𝑔(𝑥 ) = ;𝑥 > 1
𝑥2 − 1
4. (i) Find the range of the function
2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 1 − ;𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
(ii) Find the range of the function
2
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1 − ; −1 < 𝑥 < 3
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
(iii) Find the range of the function
2
ℎ(𝑥 ) = 1 − ;𝑥 > 3
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
(iv) Write down the equations of the asymptotes of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ), if any.
(v) Write down the equations of the asymptotes of the function ℎ(𝑥 ), if any.
 29

Types of functions:
We have different types of functions like linear functions, quadratic functions, exponential functions,
logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions etc.
We will learn quadratic functions at the end of this unit. Trigonometric functions will be learned in
Trigonometry module.
We have special types of functions like
• One - one functions (1: 1 functions)
• Piecewise functions

One - one functions:

These functions have one to one relationship between the domain and the range.
That is each value of the range is related to only one value of the domain.

For example, consider the function,

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 1, ∀𝑥 > 0
The domain and range values of this function are given in the table:

𝒙 1 2 3 …
𝒇(𝒙) 1 3 5 …

Here the range values 1, 3, 5, … are related with the unique domain values 1, 2, 3, …
None of the range values are related with same domain. Hence this is an one-one function.
Consider another function,
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ
The domain and range values of this function are given in the table:

𝒙 … −1 0 1 …
𝒇(𝒙) … 0 −1 0 …

In this function the range values are −1 and 0, in which 0 is related with two different domain values −1 and
1. Hence this is not an one-one function.
We will try to find the difference between the graphs of one-one functions and the other functions.

TO DO:
• Plot the graphs of
➢ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏, ∀𝒙 > 𝟎
➢ 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏, ∀𝒙 ∈ ℝ
➢ 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 , ∀𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
• Identify the one-one functions and other functions using domain and Range.
• Compare the graphs of one-one functions and the graphs of other functions.
• What can you conclude from the comparison?
 30

Horizontal Line Test for testing one-one functions:

It is a test use to determine if a function is one-to-one. If a horizontal line intersects a function's graph more
than once, then the function is not one-one. This is illustrated in the following figure.

Piecewise functions:
Piecewise functions are the combination or two or more different functions defined with different domains.
The domain of the piecewise functions is the collective domain of the individual defined functions.
For example, consider two functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) as follows.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2, 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6
Now the piecewise function can be defined using these two functions as follows:

( ) 𝒙𝟐 , 𝟎≤𝒙≤𝟐
𝒉 𝒙 ={
𝒙 + 𝟐, 𝟐≤𝒙≤𝟔
The domain of ℎ(𝑥 ) is 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6.

The graph of this piecewise function is shown below:

 31

Combining two functions:

The following figure shows the sequential operation of two different functions.

Let the functions be

𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 + 2
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 3
From the figure, the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) takes the input 𝑥 and gives the output 𝑦1 which is the input for the function
𝑔(𝑥). The output of the function 𝑔(𝑥 ) is 𝑦2 .
Say for 𝑥 = 7, 𝑓 (7) = √7 + 2 = 3 = 𝑦1
Since 𝑦1 is the input for 𝑔(𝑥 ), 𝑔(𝑦1 ) = 32 + 3 = 12 = 𝑦2 .
Is it possible to combine both functions to get a single function which gives the output 𝑦2 ?
From the figure, 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 + 2.
2
Now 𝑦2 = 𝑔(𝑦1 ) = 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑥 )) = 𝑔(√𝑥 + 2) = (√𝑥 + 2) + 3 = 𝑥 + 2 + 3 = 𝑥 + 5
Hence for 𝑥 = 7, 𝑦2 = 7 + 5 = 12 which is the required output.
This process of combining two or more functions is called “Composition of functions”.

Notation of Composition of functions:

The composition of two functions 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) is represented as
𝒇𝒐𝒈(𝒙)
Instead we can use the notation 𝒇𝒈(𝒙) which means 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )).
Example II – 5: Find 𝒈𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒇𝒈(𝒙) when 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟏 and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 .
Solution:
𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥 )) = 𝑔(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = 𝑓 (𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1

Conditions for Composition of two functions:

While doing 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ), the output values of 𝑔(𝑥 ) (that is the range of 𝑔(𝑥 )), become the input of 𝑓(𝑥 ) (that is
the domain of 𝑓(𝑥 )).
Hence the composition of two functions 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) exists, only if, the range of the function 𝑔(𝑥 ) is the subset of
the domain of 𝑓(𝑥 ).
Similarly, the composition of two functions 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists, only if, the range of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the subset
of the domain of 𝑔(𝑥 ).
 32

Example II – 6:
(i) If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏 for 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 for 𝒙 ≥ 𝟑, then check whether 𝒈𝒇(𝒙) exists and state
the reason?
(ii) If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏 for 𝒙 ≥ 𝒌 and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 for 𝒙 ≥ 𝟑, then state the minimum value of 𝒌 for which
𝒈𝒇(𝒙) exists. Here 𝒌 is an integer.
(iii) For the value of 𝒌 found in part (ii), State the domain and range of 𝒈𝒇(𝒙).
Solution:
(i) If 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists, the range of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is the subset of the domain of 𝑔(𝑥 ).
Range of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is 𝑓 ≥ 1. This is not the subset of 𝑔(𝑥 ), since {1,2} ∉ domain of 𝑔(𝑥 ).
(ii) For the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) should be the subset of the domain of 𝑔(𝑥 ),
2
3𝑥 + 1 ≥ 3 ⇒ 3𝑥 ≥ 2 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ .
3
Since 𝑘 is an integer, 𝑘 = 1 for which 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists.
(iii) Since the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) becomes the subset of domain of 𝑔(𝑥 ), the domain of 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) is the range of
𝑓(𝑥 ). Hence the domain of 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) is 𝑥 ≥ 4.
Then the range of 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) is 𝑔𝑓 ≥ 16.

Exercise II - 2
1. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 3 for 𝑥 > 𝑎, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 − 1 for 𝑥 > 0,
(i) find the minimum value of 𝑎 for which 𝑔𝑓(𝑥 ) exists. Here 𝑎 is an integer.
(ii) For the value of 𝑎 found in part (i), find the range of 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ).
2. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 2)2 − 1 for 𝑥 > 𝑏, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 for 𝑥 > 0, find the minimum value of 𝑏 for which
𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists.
𝑥 2 +3 𝑥−1
3. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = for 𝑥 > 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = for 𝑥 < 𝑐, find the maximum value of 𝑐 for which
𝑥 2 −2 𝑥+2
𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) exists.
4. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 for 𝑥 > 𝑑, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 1 for 𝑥 > 0, find the minimum value of 𝑑 for which
𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists.
5. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 2 − 3 for 𝑥 > 𝑒, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 1 for 𝑥 > 1, find the minimum value of 𝑒 for which
𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists.
6. The functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) are defined as follows.
10
𝑓(𝑥 ) = + 3; 𝑥 > 2
𝑥−2
10
𝑔(𝑥 ) = + 3; 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 7
𝑥−2
(i) State with a reason whether 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) exists. If it exists, find the expression for 𝑓𝑔 and state the range.
(ii) State with a reason whether 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists. If it exists, find the expression for 𝑔𝑓 and state the range.
 33

Exercise II - 3
9
1. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 − 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = , find 𝑓𝑔(𝑥).
2−𝑥
2. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , find 𝑔𝑓(𝑥).
2𝑥−1
3. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = , then solve 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥.
𝑥+3
4. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 7 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 𝑘, find the value of 𝑘 for which the equation 𝑔𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0
has two equal roots.
5. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥, Express 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐.
6. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2, find the value of 𝑎 for which 𝑓𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥+3
7. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = , Show that 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥.
2𝑥−1
8. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 for 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 for 𝑥 ≤ 3, find the set of values of 𝑥 which satisfy
𝑔𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 16.
8
9. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 5, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = , find the set of possible values of 𝑘 for which 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) = 5 − 𝑘𝑥 has no
𝑥−3
solutions.

Inverse of a function:
We know that a function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) takes the input 𝑥 and leaves the output 𝑦.
The function which takes 𝑦 as its input and gives 𝑥 as the output is known as the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥).
Notation of Inverse of a function:
The inverse of a function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is denoted as 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).
Domain and range of inverse functions:
The domain of a function 𝒇(𝒙) becomes the range of its inverse 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).
Similarly, the range of a function 𝒇(𝒙) becomes the domain of its inverse 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).
Say for example that a function 𝑔(𝑥 ) has its domain as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and its range as 𝑐 ≤ 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑑 where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are constants.
Now the inverse function 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) has its domain as 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑 and range as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑏.
Hence to find the range or domain of the inverse of a function it is necessary to know the domain or
range of the function itself.
Conditions for Inverse:
Inverse exists only for one-one functions.
The reason is explained below.
The condition for a function is the inputs should have unique outputs.
The relations shown in the table below, will help you to understand the conditions for a function also the
conditions for the existence of its inverse.
 34

Functions Inverse Functions

Since this relation is not a function, the inverse

doesn’t exist.

This relation is not a function since the input value

𝑥3 doesn’t have a unique output.

This is a function since all the input values have their

unique outputs, but not an one-one function. This is not a function since 𝑦3 doesn’t have a unique
Note: Here unique outputs is meant as only one output. Hence Inverse doesn’t exist.
output.

This is a function. Hence Inverse exists only for

This is an one-one function since all the input values
one-one function.
are having one-to-one relation with their outputs.
 35

Finding the Inverse:

For simple functions we can use inverse operations like subtraction for addition and vice versa, division for
multiplication and vice versa, square root for square and vice versa.
Example II – 7: Find inverse for 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝟑
Here the operation is +𝟑 and its inverse is −𝟑.
Hence, the inverse function 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟑.

Example II – 8: Find inverse for 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙

Here the operation is square root and its inverse is square.
Hence, the inverse function 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 .

Example II – 9: Find inverse for 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏

Here the sequence of operation is
• Multiplying by 𝟐 (𝟐𝒙)
• Adding 𝟏 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)
Then the sequence of inverse operation is
• Subtracting 𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝟏)
(𝒙 − 𝟏)⁄
• Dividing by 𝟐 𝟐
Hence, the inverse function
𝒙−𝟏
𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) =
𝟐

For complex functions, we can use the following procedure to find the inverse.
• Assign 𝒙 in the place of 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒚 in the place of 𝒙 in the given function.
• Now make 𝒚 as the subject.
• Now replace 𝒚 with 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).
Also, it is necessary to define a function along with its domain which is applicable for inverse function also.
To find the domain of the inverse function, we need to find the range of its function.

Example II – 10:
A function 𝒇 is defined by 𝒇: 𝒙 ↦ (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟑 − 𝟖, for 𝟐 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟒. Find an expression, in terms of 𝒙, for
𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) and find the domain of 𝒇−𝟏 .
Step 1: Assign 𝒙 in the place of 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒚 in the place of 𝒙 in the given function.
𝒙 = (𝟐𝒚 − 𝟑)𝟑 − 𝟖
Step 2: Now make 𝒚 as the subject.
(𝟐𝒚 − 𝟑)𝟑 = 𝒙 + 𝟖
𝟑
𝟐𝒚 − 𝟑 = √𝒙 + 𝟖
𝟑
𝟐𝒚 = √𝒙 + 𝟖 + 𝟑
𝟑
√𝒙 + 𝟖 + 𝟑
𝒚=
𝟐
 36

Step 3: Now replace 𝒚 with 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).

𝟑
√𝒙 + 𝟖 + 𝟑
𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) =
𝟐
Step 4: To find the domain of 𝒇−𝟏 , we need to find the range of 𝒇(𝒙).
Domain of 𝒇(𝒙) is 𝒙 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒

𝒙 2 3 4
𝒇(𝒙) −7 19 117

From the table, the range of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is −7 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 117

Hence the domain of 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) is −7 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 117.

Exercise II - 4
1. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (3𝑥 + 2)3 − 5 for 𝑥 ≥ 0, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and state the domain of 𝑓 −1 .
2𝑥−1
2. Given that 𝑔(𝑥 ) = . Show that the equation 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 has no solutions.
𝑥+3
3. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2, obtain an expression of 𝑓 −1 𝑔(𝑥).
4. Given that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 𝑎 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑏 − 2𝑥, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. When 𝑓𝑓 (2) = 10 and
𝑔−1 (2) = 3, find 𝑎 and 𝑏. Also find 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ).
𝑥+3
5. The function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓: 𝑥 ↦ , for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 1⁄2. Find an expression, in terms of 𝑥, for
2𝑥−1
−1 (
𝑓 𝑥 ).
8
6. The function 𝑔 is defined by 𝑔: 𝑥 ↦ , for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 3. Find an expression, in terms of 𝑥, for
𝑥−3
𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) stating the value of 𝑥 for which 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) is not defined.
7. (i) The diagram shows part of the curve 𝑦 = 11 − 𝑥 2
and part of the straight line 𝑦 = 5 − 𝑥 meeting at
the point 𝐴(𝑝, 𝑞 ), where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are positive constants.
Find the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.
(ii) The function 𝑓 is defined for the domain 𝑥 ≥ 0
by
11 − 𝑥 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑝
𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
5 − 𝑥, 𝑥 > 𝑝
Express 𝑓 −1 in a similar way.

8. Given that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7, 𝑥 > 2 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 2, 𝑥 > 2. Function ℎ(𝑥) is such that 𝑓 = ℎ𝑔
and the domain of ℎ(𝑥) is 𝑥 > 0. Obtain an expression for ℎ(𝑥).
 37

Graphical relationship between 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙):

Let us assume a function,
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0
Now fill the following table:

𝒙 0 1 2 3

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 4

Now, plot the points in the graph given below, and draw the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) and label it as 𝑓(𝑥 ).

We already know that,

• The domain of a function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) becomes the range of its inverse 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ).
• The range of a function 𝑓(𝑥 ) becomes the domain of its inverse 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ).
Therefore, we can just interchange the coordinates for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ), for example (2,4) of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) will become (4,2)
for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ).
Hence, fill the following table by interchanging the coordinates for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ):

𝒙 4

𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) 2

Now, plot the points on the above graph, and draw the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) and label it as 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ).
We can observe that a transformation has happened from 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) to 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ).
To determine the type of the transformation, we can draw the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Fill the following table and plot those points on the above graph and draw the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
 38

𝒙 1

𝒚=𝒙 1

Now, we can observe that,

The graphs of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒚 = 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) are reflections of each other in the line 𝒚 = 𝒙.

Exercise II - 5
1. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 2 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, Sketch, in a single diagram, the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥),
making clear the relationships between the two graphs.
2. Function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓: 𝑥 ↦ 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 0. Sketch, in a single diagram, the graphs of 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), making clear the relationships between the two graphs.
3. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 4 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, Sketch, in a single diagram, the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥),
making clear the relationships between the two graphs.
4. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 for 𝑥 ≤ 0, Sketch, in a single diagram, the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥),
showing the coordinates of their points of intersection and the relationships between the two graphs.
5. The function 𝑓 is defined for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6 where,
1 2
𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 2
1
𝑥 + 1 for 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6
2
(i) State the range of 𝑓(𝑥).
(ii) Draw the diagram and draw 𝑓 −1 on the same.
(iii) Obtain expression for 𝑓 −1 and state the domain.
6. The function 𝑓 is defined for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 where,
3𝑥 − 2 for − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 4
for 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
5−𝑥
(i) State the range of 𝑓(𝑥).
(ii) Draw the diagram and draw 𝑓 −1 on the same.
(iii) Obtain expression for 𝑓 −1 , giving also the set of values for which, each expression is valid.

7. It is given that,
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Sketch, in a single diagram, the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ), making clear the
relationships between the three graphs.
 39

Quadratic functions
The functions of the form 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 are called quadratic functions.
Domain and Range of a quadratic function:
Quadratic functions are defined for the domain of set of all real numbers.
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄, 𝒙 ∈ ℝ
But the range of a quadratic function has the restriction.
Quadratic curves have the shape of a parabola. Hence, they have a vertex.
Depending on the 𝑦 − value of the vertex and the shape of the parabola (Open upwards/Open downwards),
the range can be defined for the quadratic functions.
The graph of the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 is shown in the figure.
The domain for this curve is defined as 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
From the figure, it is clear that, the curve always lies
above the line 𝑦 = −3. Hence the range for this curve
can be defined as 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ −3.
We already learned that to find the vertex of a quadratic curve,
We have to use “completing the square” method.
For the above curve,
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 3
The 𝑦 −value if the vertex is −3.
Hence to define the range it is necessary to find the
vertex using “completing the square” method.

TO DO:
• Plot the curve 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 using www.graphfree.com
• Define the vertex, domain and range of the curve.
• Verify your answer using “completing the square” method.

Inverse of Quadratic functions:

Since the quadratic curves are parabola in shape, they are not one-one functions.
Hence it is not possible to find the inverse for quadratic functions.
But we can define a quadratic function as an one-one function. This can be done by varying the domain of
the quadratic function.
In the previous example, the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 3 can be defined as
follows.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1
 40

The plot of this definition is shown in the right.

From the graph, it is clear that, the function defined here
is an one-one function. We can also define for 𝑥 ≤ 1.
Here again we are considering the 𝑥 −value of the vertex
to define the quadratic functions as one-one functions.
The quadratic functions, defined for the domain values
that are greater than or lesser than the 𝒙 −value of
the vertex of the quadratic curves, behave as one-one
functions for which the inverse functions can be found.
In this case, the functions defined below are one-one functions.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1, −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1, 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6
Hence to define a quadratic function as an one-one function we have to use “completing the square” method.
The following graph shows the plot of a quadratic, say 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ).

By observing the graph, find the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) for the given domain values.

Domain Range Domain Range

𝑥∈ℝ 𝑥≤2
𝑥>1 𝑥≥0
𝑥>2 𝑥<0
0≤𝑥≤4 −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
 41

Example II – 11:
(i) Express 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄.
(ii) Given that 𝒇: 𝒙 ↦ 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏 , for the domain 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎, find the range of 𝒇.
Solution:
(i) 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 11 = 2(𝑥 − 3)2 − 7
(ii) Vertex is (3, −7). Hence the range is 𝑓 ≥ −7

Example II – 12:
(i) Express 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎 in the form 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄.
Given that 𝒇: 𝒙 ↦ 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎 for the domain 𝒙 ≥ 𝒌,
(ii) find the least value of 𝒌 for which 𝒇 is one-one,
(iii) express 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) in terms of 𝒙 in this case.
Solution:
(i) 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 10 = 2(𝑥 + 2)2 − 18
(ii) We know that, 𝑓 is one-one when 𝑥 ≥ −2. Hence 𝑘 = −2.
(iii) To find the inverse,
𝑥 = 2𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 − 10 = 2(𝑦 + 2)2 − 18
2(𝑦 + 2)2 = 𝑥 + 18
𝑥 + 18
(𝑦 + 2)2 =
2

𝑥 + 18
𝑦 + 2 = ±√
2

𝑥 + 18
𝑦 = ±√ −2
2

Now, which sign(±) is to be considered?

The domain is defined as 𝑥 ≥ −2. In this domain we consider a test value as 𝑥 = 0.
For 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −10 = 𝑦.
Now, if we apply 𝑥 = −10 in 𝑓 −1 we should get 𝑦 = 0.

−10 + 18
∴ 𝑦 = ±√ −2
2

𝑦 = ±√4 − 2 = ±2 − 2
We need 𝑦 = 0, which can be obtained using + sign. Hence,

𝑥 + 18
𝑓 −1 = √ −2
2
 42

Exercise II - 6
1. Given that 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 13, for 𝑥 ≥ 4,
(i) explain why 𝑔(𝑥 ) has an inverse and
(ii) find 𝑔−1 (𝑥).
2. Given that 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 14, for 𝑥 ≥ 𝐴,
(i) find the smallest value of 𝐴 for which 𝑔(𝑥 ) has an inverse and
(ii) find 𝑔−1 (𝑥).
3. The function 𝑓 is defined by
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7 for 𝑥 > 2.
(i) State the range of 𝑓.
(ii) Obtain an expression for 𝑓 −1 and state the domain of 𝑓 −1 .
The function 𝑔 is defined by
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 2 for 𝑥 > 2.
The function ℎ is such that 𝑓 = ℎ𝑔 and the domain of ℎ is 𝑥 > 0.
(iii) Obtain an expression for ℎ(𝑥 ).
4. The function ℎ is defined by
ℎ ∶ 𝑥 ↦ 𝑥 2 − 2, for 𝑥 ≤ 0.
Find an expression for ℎ−1 .
5. The function 𝑓: 𝑥 ↦ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑘 is defined for the domain 𝑥 ≥ 𝑝, where 𝑘 and 𝑝 are constants.
(i) State the range of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) in terms of 𝑘.
(ii) State the smallest value of 𝑝 for which 𝑓 is one-one.
(iii) For the value of 𝑝 found in part (ii), find an expression for 𝑓 −1 and state the domain of 𝑓 −1 , giving
your answers in terms of 𝑘.
6. The function 𝑔 is defined by
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 11 for 𝑥 ≤ 1.
(i) State the range of 𝑔.
(ii) Obtain an expression for 𝑔−1 and state the domain of 𝑔−1 .
7. The function 𝑓: 𝑥 ↦ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 is defined for the domain 𝑥 ≥ 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a constant. It is given that 𝑓 is
a one-one function. State the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) in terms of 𝑐 and find the possible values of 𝑐.
8. The function 𝑓 is defined for 𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑞, where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are positive constants, by
𝑓: 𝑥 ↦ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15.
The range of 𝑓 is given by 𝑐 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑑, where 𝑐 and 𝑑 are constants.
(i) State the smallest possible value of 𝑐.
For the case where 𝑐 = 9 and 𝑑 = 65,
(ii) find 𝑝 and 𝑞,
(iii) find an expression for 𝑓 −1 .
 43

9. The function 𝑔(𝑥 ) is such that, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 8 − (𝑥 − 2)2 , for 𝑘 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, where 𝑘 is a constant.
(i) State the smallest value of 𝑘, for which 𝑔(𝑥 ) has an inverse.
(ii) Obtain an expression for 𝑔−1 (𝑥).
(iii) Sketch on the same diagram, the graphs of both 𝑔(𝑥 ) and 𝑔−1 (𝑥).
10. Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by
𝑓: 𝑥 ↦ 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 10 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2,
𝑔: 𝑥 ↦ 𝑥 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 10.
(i) State the range of 𝑓.
(ii) State the domain of 𝑓 −1 .
(iii) Sketch on the same diagram the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ), making clear the
relationship between the graphs.
11. A function 𝑓 is such that

𝑥+3
𝑓(𝑥 ) = √ +1 for 𝑥 ≥ −3.
2

(i) Find 𝑓 −1 in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are constants,

(ii) the domain of 𝑓 −1 .
 44

Unit - III
Transformations of Functions
Transformations:
In this unit, we will be learning the following transformations of functions in brief:
• Translations
• Reflections in the 𝑥 − axis or 𝑦 − axis
• Stretches
The original function is called as the object. The transformed function is called as its image.
Translations:
Let us draw the graphs of three functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1, ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 5
First fill the following table:

𝒙 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐

𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏

𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓

Now plot the graphs of the three functions in the graph shown below:
 45

From the above graphs,

1. The type of the transformation between the curves is ________________________.
2. The curve 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 is _______________________ by _________________ unit(s) to the curve 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1
3. The curve 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 is _______________________ by _________________ unit(s) to the curve ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 5 .
4. From the above observation, we can conclude that
(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑎 is the _______________________ along the axis ________________ by _____________ units.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑎 is the _______________________ along the axis ________________ by _____________ units.
Fill the above gaps using the suitable words from the following:

Let us now draw the graphs of three functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 1)2 , ℎ(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 5)2
First fill the following table:

𝒙 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐

𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

𝒈(𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐

𝒙 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2

𝒉(𝒙) = (𝒙 + 𝟓)𝟐

Now plot the graphs of the three functions in the graph shown below:
 46

From the above graphs,

1. The type of the transformation between the curves is ________________________.
2. The curve 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 is _______________________ by _______________ unit(s) along ________________ axis to
obtain the curve 𝑔(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 1)2
3. The curve 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 is _______________________ by _______________ unit(s) along ________________ axis to
obtain the curve ℎ(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 5)2 .
4. From the above observation, we can conclude that
(i) 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎) is the _______________________ along ________________ axis by _____________ units.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) is the _______________________ along ________________ axis by _____________ units.
Fill the above gaps using the suitable words from the following:

Conclusion:
𝒂
The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) when translated by a vector ( ) results in the graph
𝒃
𝒚 − 𝒃 = 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒂) 𝐨𝐫 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒂) + 𝒃

Exercise III – 1
1. (a) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ), where 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3).
(b) On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 1 (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 3) (iii) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 1)
2. (a) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ), where 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 .
(b) On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) − 1 (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 + 2) (iii) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 4
3. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) is transformed to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 5). Describe the transformation.
4. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 (𝑥 + 3)
(a) Find and simplify the equation of the curve 3 + 𝑓(𝑥 − 1).
(b) Describe the transformation.
0
5. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 is translated by ( ). Find and simplify the equation of the translated curve.
3
−1
6. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3 is translated by ( ). Find and simplify the equation of the translated curve.
0
7. The table gives some values of 𝑦 for the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ).
𝑥 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) 0.5 1 3 6 10 12 13
Find the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 3, when the graph is translated by the following vectors.
0 2 −3 −1 3 0
(i) ( ) (ii) ( ) (iii) ( ) (iv) ( ) (v) ( ) (vi) ( )
3 0 0 5 3 −1
 47

Reflection:
Let us draw the graphs of two functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 2 .
First fill the following table:

𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐

𝒈(𝒙) = −𝒙𝟐

Now plot the graphs of the two functions in the graph shown below:

From the above graphs,

1. The type of the transformation between the curves is ________________________.
2. The curve 𝑔(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 2 is _______________________ of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 on ______________ axis.
3. From the above observation, we can conclude that
(i) −𝑓(𝑥 ) is the _______________________ of 𝑓(𝑥 ) on ______________ axis.
Fill the above gaps using the suitable words from the following:

Let us now draw the graphs of two functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2−𝑥 .
First fill the following table:

𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙

𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟐−𝒙
 48

Now plot the graphs of the two functions in the graph shown below:

From the above graphs,

1. The type of the transformation between the curves is ________________________.
2. The curve 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2−𝑥 is _______________________ of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 on ______________ axis.
3. From the above observation, we can conclude that
(i) 𝑓(−𝑥 ) is the _______________________ of 𝑓(𝑥 ) on ______________ axis.
Fill the above gaps using the suitable words from the following:

Conclusion:
−𝒇(𝒙) is reflection on 𝒙 − axis of 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇(−𝒙) is reflection on 𝒚 − axis of 𝒇(𝒙)

Exercise III – 2
1. (a) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2).
(b) On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) (ii) 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥 )
2. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) is transformed to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) + 7. Describe the transformation.
3. The points 𝑃(−3,5) and 𝑄 (−2, −8) lie on the curve with the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
Find the coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑄 after the curve has been transformed by the following transformations.
(a) 𝑓(−𝑥 ) (b) −𝑓(𝑥 ) (c) 𝑓(−𝑥 + 1) (d) −𝑓(𝑥 ) − 5
4. The curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 is reflected in the 𝑥 − axis. State the equation of the reflected curve in
the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
 49

5. The diagram shows a sketch of the curve 𝑓(𝑥 ), which passes through the points (0,3) and (−1,0).

Sketch the graphs of

(i) 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥 ) (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) (iii) 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥 + 4) (iv) 3 − 𝑓(−𝑥 )

Stretches:
Let us draw the graphs of three functions 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 2 − 1), ℎ(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 )2 − 1
First fill the following table:

𝒙 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟐(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝒉(𝒙) = (𝟐𝒙)𝟐 − 𝟏

Now plot the graphs of the three functions in the graph shown below:
 50

From the above graphs,

1. The type of the transformation between the curves is ________________________.
2. The curve 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is _______________________ by a scale factor of _________________ to obtain the
curve 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 2 − 1)
3. The curve 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is _______________________ by a scale factor of _________________ to obtain the
curve ℎ(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 )2 − 1 .
4. From the above observation, we can conclude that
(i) 𝑎𝑓(𝑥 ) is the _______________________ of 𝑓(𝑥 ) along ________________ axis by a scale factor of
____________.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 ) is the _______________________ of 𝑓(𝑥 ) along ________________ axis by a scale factor of
____________.
Fill the above gaps using the suitable words from the following:

Conclusion:
𝒂𝒇(𝒙) is a stretch of 𝒇(𝒙) with factor 𝒂 in the 𝒚 − direction.
𝟏
𝒇(𝒂𝒙) is a stretch of 𝒇(𝒙) with factor in the 𝒙 − direction.
𝒂

Exercise III – 3
1. (a) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) where 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 16 − 𝑥 2 .
(b) On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑓(2𝑥 ) (ii) 𝑦 = 4𝑓(𝑥 ) (iii) 𝑦 = 𝑓(−4𝑥 )
2. The diagram shows a sketch of the curve 𝑓(𝑥 ), which passes through the origin, 𝑂, and the points
𝐴(−2,8) and 𝐵(1, −1).
 51

On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of

1
(a) 𝑦 = 4𝑓(𝑥 ) (b) 𝑦 = 𝑓 (− 𝑥) (c) 𝑦 = −2𝑓(𝑥 + 1) (d) 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑓(−2𝑥 )
2

3. The diagram shows a sketch of the curve 𝑔(𝑥 ).

The curve has a horizontal asymptote with equation 𝑦 = 1 and a vertical asymptote with equation 𝑥 =
0. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), where 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 ) − 1. On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑓(2𝑥 ) (b) 𝑦 = −3𝑓(𝑥 ) (c) 𝑦 = 2𝑓(𝑥 − 3)
1 1
(d) 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑓 ( 𝑥) (e) 𝑦 = 3 + 4𝑓(𝑥 ) (f) 𝑦 = 4𝑓 (− 𝑥)
2 2

4. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) is transformed to the graph of 𝑦 = −𝑓 (2𝑥 ).

Describe fully the two single transformations that have been combined to give the resulting
transformation.
5. The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) is transformed to the graph of 𝑦 = 4 + 3𝑓(𝑥 − 2).
Describe fully the three single transformations that have been combined to give the resulting
transformation.
6. The diagram shows the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ).
 52

(i) Write down the equation of the graph given by each of the following diagrams.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

7. In each of the parts of the diagram below, the curve drawn with a dashed line is obtained as a mapping
of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) using a single transformation.
In each case, write down the equation of the image(dashed) in terms of 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
(i) (ii)
 53

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi)
 54

Answers
Unit - I - Quadratic equations
Exercise I - 1
1. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 11) 2. (𝑥 + 9)(𝑥 + 3) 3. (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 10)
4. (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 7) 5. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 9) 6. (7𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
7. (3𝑥 + 1)(4𝑥 + 1) 8. (2𝑥 − 1)(4𝑥 − 1) 9. (𝑥 + 6)(3𝑥 − 1)
10. (3𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 + 1)
Exercise I - 2
5 2 11
1. (𝑥 + 5)2 + 7 2. 2 (𝑥 + ) − 3. 5 − 2(𝑥 + 1)2
2 2

4. (𝑥 − 4)2 − 4 5. 32 − (𝑥 + 5)2 6. 13 − (𝑥 − 3)2

1 2 19 21 1 2
7. (2𝑥 − 2) + 8. (3𝑥 + 1 )2 − 11 9. − (4𝑥 + )
4 4 2

249 3 2
10. − (2𝑥 − ) 11. 30 − (𝑥 − 4)2 12. 53 − (𝑥 + 6)2
16 4

13. 25 − (𝑥 − 5)2 14. 35 − 2(𝑥 − 4)2 15. 76 − 3(𝑥 + 5)2

Exercise I - 3
1. (3, −4); 𝑀𝑖𝑛 2. (−2,1); 𝑀𝑖𝑛 3. (4,3); 𝑀𝑖𝑛
4. (−1,3); 𝑀𝑎𝑥 5. (−2,1); 𝑀𝑖𝑛
Exercise I - 4
3 1
1. 𝑥 = −13,19 2. 𝑥= , 3. 𝑥 = −7, −7 4. 𝑥 = 1,11
4 4
3 2 1
5. 𝑥= , 6. 𝑥 = −5, 7. 𝑥 = −2√3, √3
2 3 3

√3 9
8. 𝑥 = −3√3, 9. 𝑥 = − , 15 10. 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 = 0
2 2

11. 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 7 = 0 12. 𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 30 = 0 13. 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 88 = 0

14. 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 27 = 0 15. 10𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
Exercise I - 5
1. 𝑥 < −3, 𝑥 > −2 2. 3<𝑥<4 3. 𝑥 ≤ −3, 𝑥 ≥ 5
3 2 3
4. 𝑥 ≤ −3, 𝑥 ≥ 3 5. 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑥 ≥ 6. − <𝑥<
2 3 2
3 1
7. 𝑥 < − ,𝑥 > 8. 2<𝑥<4 9. 𝑥 ≤ −1, 𝑥 ≥ 5
4 3

10. 𝑥 < −17, 𝑥 > 17

Exercise I - 6
1 1 7
1. − <𝑥<1 2. 𝑥 < −1, 𝑥 > 4 3. <𝑥<
3 5 5
1 1
4. −1 < 𝑥 < − 5. −1 < 𝑥 < 3 6. 𝑥>−
7 2
1
7. 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 7𝑎 8. 𝑥 < −8, 𝑥 > 0
3
 55

Exercise I - 7
I 1. Two distinct real roots. 2. No real roots 3. Two equal real roots
4. Two distinct real roots. 5. Two equal real roots 6. No real roots
9
II 1. 𝑝 = ±2√2 2. 𝑝=− 3. 𝑝=3
20

Exercise I – 8
2
1. 𝑥 = ±2, ±4 2. 𝑥 = 9,100 3. 𝑥= ,3
3
4. 𝑥 = 2, −1 5. 𝑥 = 8.24,68.7 6. 𝑥 = 36,49
Exercise I – 9
2 1 1 49
1. 𝐴(−1,1), 𝐵 ( , 6) 2. 𝑃(3,7), 𝑄 (− , 3 ) 3. 𝑘 < −6; 𝑘 > 2 4. 𝑘=
3 2 2 24

5. 𝑘 = −1; 𝑃(−2,1) 6. 2 tangents 7. 0<𝑘<4

1 1
8. 𝑘 < 2, 𝑘 > 6 9. 𝑚 = −3, 𝑃(2,8) 10. (− , −√2) , ( , √2)
√2 √2

Unit - II – Functions
Exercise II - 1
I 1. 𝑥≥0 2. 𝑥≤0 3. 𝑥≥4 4. 𝑥≤4
5. 𝑥≥2 6. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − { 2} 7. 𝑥>2 8. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − {1,2}
II 1. 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 7 2. 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 0 3. 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ −1
4. 0 < 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 16 5. −1 ≤ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≤ 7 6. 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 16
III 1. (i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 0 (ii) 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≥ 1 2. (i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 4 (ii) 𝑔 (𝑥 ) ≥ 5
3. (i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ −2 (ii) 𝑔(𝑥 ) > 0 4. (i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 1, 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 1.5
4. (ii) 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≥ 1.5 (iii) ℎ(𝑥 ) < 1 (iv) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 3 (v) No Asymptotes
Exercise II - 2
1. (i) 𝑎=2 (ii) 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 4 2. 𝑏=3 3. 𝑐 = −5 4. 𝑑=0
13𝑥+4 19
5. 𝑒=1 6. (i)𝑓𝑔 exists since range of 𝑔 is the subset of domain of 𝑓,𝑓𝑔 = ;3 < 𝑓𝑔 ≤
𝑥+8 3
(ii) 𝑔𝑓 does not exist since range of 𝑓 is not the subset of domain of 𝑔.
Exercise II - 3
32+2𝑥 √2
1. 2. −9𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 − 16 3. 𝑥=± 4. 𝑘 = 22
2−𝑥 2
5 64
5. 4(𝑥 + 1)2 − 1 6. 𝑎 = −1 8. − ≤𝑥≤0 9. 0<𝑘<
2 9

Exercise II - 4
3
√𝑥+5−2 1
1. ;𝑥 ≥ 3 3. (𝑥2 − 3) 4. 𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = 8, 𝑓 −1 = 22 − 6𝑥
3 2
𝑥+3 8
5. 6. 𝑔−1 = +3; 𝑥 ≠ 0 7. (i) 𝑝 = 3, 𝑞 = 2
2𝑥−1 𝑥
5 − 𝑥, 𝑥 < 2
7. (ii) 𝑓 −1 = { 8. 𝑥2 + 3
√11 − 𝑥, 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 11
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Exercise II - 5
1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.
 57

7.

The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) are the reflections of each other on the graph 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ).
Exercise II - 6
𝑥+5 𝑥−6
1. (i) since 1: 1 (ii) √ +3 2. (i) 𝐴=2 (ii) √ +2
2 2

3. (i) 𝑓>3 (ii) 2 + √𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 > 3 (iii) ℎ = 𝑥 2 + 3 4. ℎ−1 = −√𝑥 + 2

5. (i) 𝑓 >𝑘−4 (ii) 𝑝=2 (iii) 𝑓 −1 = 2 + √𝑥 + 4 − 𝑘; 𝑥 > 𝑘 − 4
1
6. (i) 𝑔 ≥ −9 (ii) 𝑔−1 = 3 − √𝑥 + 25; 𝑥 ≥ −9 7. 𝑓 ≥ 𝑐 2 + 4𝑐; 𝑐 ≥ −2
2

8. (i) 𝑐 = −16 (ii) 𝑝 = 6; 𝑞 = 10 (iii) 𝑓 −1 = 1 + √𝑥 + 16

9. (i) 𝑘=2 (ii) 𝑔−1 = 2 + √8 − 𝑥 10. (i) 2 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 10 (ii) 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10
9. (iii) 10. (iii)

11. (i) 𝑓 −1 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 (ii) 𝑥 ≥ −1

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Unit - III – Transformations

Exercise III - 1
1. (a) (b) (i)

(b) (ii) (iii)

2. (a) (b) (i)

(b) (ii) (iii)

−5
3. Translation by a vector ( )
0
1
4. (a) 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 (b) Translation by a vector ( )
3
5. 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 4 6. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2
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7. (i) 9 (ii) 1 (iii) 13 (iv) 15 (v) 3.5 (vi) 5

Exercise III - 2
1. (a) (b) (i)

(b) (ii)

0
2. Reflection in the 𝑦 − axis, then translation by the vector ( )
7
3. (a) 𝑃(3,5), 𝑄 (2, −8) (b) 𝑃(−3, −5), 𝑄 (−2,8) (c) 𝑃(2,5), 𝑄 (1, −8)
(d) 𝑃(−3, −10), 𝑄 (−2,3)
4. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 5.
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Exercise III - 3
1. (a) (b) (i)

(b) (ii) (iii)

2. (a) (b)

(c) (d)
 61

3. (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

1
4. Stretch parallel to 𝑥 − axis with stretch factor , then reflection in the 𝑥 − axis.
2
2
5. Translate by the vector ( ), then stretch parallel to the 𝑦 − axis with stretch factor 3, then translation
0
0
by the vector ( ).
4
1
6. (a) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 1 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 − 1) − 1 (c) 𝑦 = 2𝑔(𝑥 ) (d) 𝑦 = 𝑔 ( 𝑥)
3
1
7. (i) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2) (ii) 𝑦 = −𝑓 (𝑥 ) (iii) 𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥)
2

(iv) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 3 (v) 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) or 2 − 𝑓 (𝑥 )

3
(vi) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )
2
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Module Summary
Quadratics
• Quadratic equations are in the form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎.
• Factorised form of a quadratic equation is (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)(𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅) = 𝟎
• “Completing the square” form of the quadratic equation is 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
• While plotting the graph of a quadratic equation we get a Parabola.
✓ The points, where the Parabola meets the 𝑥 − axis, are derived from the factorised form of the
quadratic equation as follows.
𝒃 𝒅
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) = 0 ⇒ 𝒙 = − , −
𝒂 𝒄
Hence the points where the Parabola meets the 𝑥 − axis are
𝑏 𝑑
(− , 0) , (− , 0)
𝑎 𝑐
✓ The vertex of the Parabola is also known as the turning point or the stationary point. It is the
maximum point of the curve when 𝒂 < 𝟎 and the minimum point of the curve when 𝒂 > 𝟎 in the
equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
✓ The vertex of the Parabola is calculated from the “completing the square” form of the quadratic
equation as follows:
𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐 = 0
Equating the “complete square” part to zero gives the 𝑥 − coordinate of the vertex and the constant
𝑐 is the 𝑦 − coordinate of the vertex. Hence the vertex is given by (−𝒃, 𝒄)
• The solutions or the roots of a quadratic equation are the values of 𝑥 where the Parabola meets the 𝑥 −
axis.
✓ The solutions of the quadratic equation can be found using any of the forms as follows:
Factorised form:
𝑏 𝑑
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = − , −
𝑎 𝑐
“Completing the square” form:
𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐 = 0
Now make 𝒙 as subject.
✓ The following Quadratic formula helps us to directly find the solutions of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐=0
−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝒙=
𝟐𝒂
• To solve the quadratic inequality,
✓ First find the roots of the quadratic equation.
✓ Say the roots are 𝑝 and 𝑞 in ascending order.
✓ Now the solution set for the inequality 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 are 𝒙 < 𝒑, 𝒙 > 𝒒
✓ And the solution set for the inequality 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 are 𝒑 < 𝒙 < 𝒒
• If the roots of a quadratic equation are 𝛼 and 𝛽 respectively, then the equation of the quadratic equation
is given by
𝒙𝟐 − (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝒙 + 𝜶𝜷 = 𝟎
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• Nature of the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is given by

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 𝟎 Two distinct real roots

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎 Two equal real roots or One real root

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎 No real roots

• To find the intersection point between a curve and a line, solve the equations of the curve and the line.
✓ While equating the two equations, we get a quadratic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 and
now

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 𝟎 Line intersects the curve at two points.

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎 Line touches the curve or Line is the tangent to the curve.
𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎 Line neither touches nor intersects the curve.

Functions
• The domain of a function is defined as the set of values of inputs (𝑥) that the function is defined with.
• The range of a function is defined as the set of values of outputs[𝑓(𝑥)], which are related to the set of
all the defined domain values(inputs).
• Hence for the function defined as 𝑓(𝑥 ), the values of 𝑥 that can be taken by the function are the domain
and the corresponding values of 𝑓(𝑥 ) are the range.
• Range can be easily found, by sketching the rough graph, for the given function.
• The composition of two functions 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒈(𝒙):
✓ The function 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) is composition of 𝑔(𝑥 ) with 𝑓(𝑥 ).
✓ The function 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) is composition of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) with 𝑔(𝑥 ).
✓ The composition 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) can be defined only if the range of 𝑔(𝑥 ) is the subset of the domain of
𝑓(𝑥 ).
✓ The composition 𝑔𝑓 (𝑥 ) can be defined only if the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the subset of the domain of
𝑔(𝑥 ).
• The inverse of a function 𝒇(𝒙):
✓ Inverse exists only for one-one functions.
✓ The domain of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) becomes the range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) and the range of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) becomes the domain of
𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) and vice versa.
✓ The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) are the reflections of each other on the line 𝒚 = 𝒙.
✓ To find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥 ), write the equation of the form 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and make 𝑦 as the subject.
✓ If 𝑓𝑔 = ℎ then 𝑓 = ℎ𝑔−1 and 𝑔 = 𝑓 −1 ℎ.
• Quadratic functions:
✓ Quadratic functions are not one-one and hence, Inverse does not exist.
✓ For a quadratic function in the form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐, 𝑥 > 𝑘, the least value of 𝑘, for which
the function has an inverse is 𝒌 = −𝒃.
✓ For a quadratic function in the form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐, 𝑥 < 𝑘, the greatest value of 𝑘, for
which the function has an inverse is 𝒌 = −𝒃.
✓ The range of the quadratic function in the form 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is given by 𝒇(𝒙) ≥
𝒄.
✓ The range of the quadratic function in the form 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is given by 𝒇(𝒙) ≤
𝒄.
✓ However, the range of the quadratic function differs depending on the domain values.
 64

✓ To find the inverse of a quadratic function, convert the quadratic into “completing the square”
form.
✓ Method of finding Inverse of a quadratic from the “completing the square” form:
𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑦 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐
𝑥 − 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑦 + 𝑏)2
𝑥−𝑐
(𝑦 + 𝑏)2 =
𝑎
𝑥−𝑐
𝑦 + 𝑏 = ±√
𝑎
𝑥−𝑐
𝑦 = −𝑏 ± √
𝑎
Now it should be tested whether + or − is valid. For that, a test value from the domain of 𝑓(𝑥 )
should be taken and the corresponding 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) should be calculated. Then apply the calculated
𝑦 value in the place of 𝑥 in the final derivation of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) and check whether + or − gives the input
test value. (refer Example II – 12)

Transformations of functions
• Translation:
𝑎
✓ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎) is the translation of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) by a vector ( ) or the translation of the
0
curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) along the positive 𝑥 direction by 𝑎 units.
0
✓ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑏 or 𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the translation of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) by a vector ( ) or the
𝑏
translation of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) along the positive 𝑦 direction by 𝑏 units.
• Reflection:
✓ 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) is the reflection of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) on 𝑦 − axis.
✓ 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥 ) is the reflection of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) on 𝑥 − axis.
• Stretch:
1
✓ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 ) is stretching the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) by a scale factor along the 𝑥 − axis.
𝑎
✓ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥 ) is stretching the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) by a scale factor 𝑎 along the 𝑦 − axis.
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