MONO VS.

STEREO
In most venues, mono is preferable so everyone
hears the same sound. With stereo, some people
will be in the “sweet spot,” while others will hear
mostly the left or right channel. To create a mono
mix with a stereo mixer, move all panpots to the
center position.

THE IMPORTANCE OF
“GAIN-STAGING”
This is the process of setting levels properly—
not too high, which can lead to distortion, and
not low, which can lead to hiss. There are
three main places to adjust levels in a mixer;
here’s how to set them.
Fig. 19: The dark blue lines indicate signals going through a
· Preamp gain. Set this for the maximum channel strip. The light blue lines show how signals come
level short of distortion (i.e., just below where off the channel strip audio into knobs, which regulate the
the clip indicator lights). It’s acceptable if output going to the mixer’s monitor bus. The yellow lines
the clip indicator lights briefly and very indicate a second send of sends, which feed the mixer’s
rarely; otherwise, reduce the gain. internal effects (e.g., reverb and the like).
· Master output. This will usually be
calibrated in dB. 0 dB indicates that it is
neither adding gain nor attenuating the
signal. Negative values indicate attenuation,
and positive values indicate gain. When
starting a mix, set it at around –3 dB. Mixers
generally have output meters that show the
overall level leaving the mixer.
· Channel faders. Set these so that during
musical peaks, the output meters peak at
around –3 dB. If you need to increase the
level a bit as the venue fills up, no problem—
simply turn the master output to 0, or even a
little bit higher. If you need to go much
higher than 0, turn up the GSR series
speaker level controls.

MIXER MEETS COMPUTER

Some mixers, like the M-Audio NRV10, include
a computer interface that allows you to send
audio into a computer as well as to your
speakers. If the computer is equipped with
recording software, then it’s possible to
simultaneously record the live concert,
Fig. 20: The signals from several channels, for example
conference, service, etc. Although computer-
multiple mics from a choir, go to Aux Send bus 1.
based recording is beyond the scope of this Returning its output to a mixer input (in this case, the Line
publication, it’s important to realize that there’s In 7/8 channel) lets you use the Line In 7/8 fader to alter
the potential to add recording to your live the level of all mics together, without changing the
performance if you choose the correct mixer. balance of the individual mics.

www.m-audio.com 21
CHAPTER 6:

Signal Processing
There are several ways to improve the · Frequency. This sets the frequency at which
sound of your PA system, both on the boost or cut occurs.
individual channels and the overall · Bandwidth. Also called Q or resonance, this
output, by using signal processors. Think specifies the range of frequencies affected
of these as the “spices” that bring out by the boost/cut control—from narrow to wide.
the best in the signal sources feeding the
PA. But to use them effectively, you need Quasi-Parametric EQ
to understand how they work.
This is like a standard parametric, but the
EQUALIZER TYPES bandwidth is fixed instead of variable.
An equalizer (EQ) is a tone control that helps
shape a sound’s tonal quality. Thin voices can Graphic EQ
be made fuller, “muddy” sounds made clearer,
and you can even use equalization to match This has multiple sliders—anywhere from three to
your PA’s sonic character to specific venues. dozens—with each slider determining the boost
or cut amount at a specific, fixed frequency (Fig.
As mentioned previously, you’ll usually find 23). It gets its name because the sliders’
equalizers in mixer channel strips. However physical positions show a rough approximation
there are many different types, from simple to of the frequency response. Graphic equalizers
complex. Here’s a summary. are seldom part of a mixer’s channel strip, but
instead are included in the mixer’s master
Shelving EQ controls to shape the overall output.

This is like the bass or treble control on a Multi-Stage EQ

typical hi-fi system. It gets its name because
it creates a “shelf” in the frequency response Sophisticated mixers often combine multiple
(Fig. 21). A treble (or “high”) shelving equalization stages. For example, a high-end
equalizer boosts or cuts high frequencies, mixer might have a four-stage EQ that
whereas a bass (or “low”) shelving equalizer combines a bass shelving EQ, treble shelving
boosts or cuts low frequencies. Even budget EQ, and two parametric stages. This allows for
mixers usually include treble and bass versatile equalization. Even relatively low-cost
shelving EQ. mixer channel strips may include three-stage
equalizers with high and low shelving, and a
Parametric EQ parametric or quasi-parametric stage.

The response is different compared to shelving SHELVING EQ APPLICATIONS

equalizers, as it creates a peak (or notch) at a Shelving EQs are best for broad, general
specific frequency (Fig. 22). A parametric EQ changes. However, you need to be careful in
has three controls. situations involving microphones, as too much
added bass or treble can lead to feedback.
· Boost/cut. Also called Gain, this
determines the amount of the peak (boost) · Audience compensation. People and
or depth of the notch (cut). clothing absorb sound, particularly high
22 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
Contents
CHAPTER 1: CHAPTER 6:
PA System Basics and Components Signal Processing
· Equalizer Types
CHAPTER 2: · Shelving EQ Applications
Choosing and Using the · Parametric EQ Applications
Right Microphones · Graphic EQ Applications
· Microphone Types · Reverb
· Mic Placement and Usage · Limiter
· Optimizing the Sound · Compressor
· Cables and Connectors · Other Effects
CHAPTER 3: CHAPTER 7:
Balanced/Unbalanced Lines Amplifying Musical Instruments
and Connectors · Mic Placement for Acoustic Sources
· Impedance: No Worries! · Electronic Instruments
· Cables · Electric Guitar and Bass “Direct” Setups
· Singer/Songwriter Setup
CHAPTER 4:
Speaker, Mixer, and Monitor Setup CHAPTER 8:
· Speaker Positioning Sound Check
· Speakers and Walls · “Ringing Out” the System
· Positioning the Mixer · Adjusting for Room Resonances
· Positioning Performers or Presenters · Checking Sound Levels
· Positioning Monitors
· Tonal Setup CHAPTER 9:
Troubleshooting
CHAPTER 5: · Solving “Out of Phase” Problems
Mixer · Dealing with Feedback
· Inputs and Outputs · Minimizing Distortion
· Channel Strips · Reducing Hums and Buzzes
· Mixer Buses
· The Master Section CHAPTER 10:
· Mono vs. Stereo Glossary
· The Importance of “Gain-Staging”
· Mixer Meets Computer

Production Staff
Editor-in-Chief Editors Advertising Art Direction Photography
Craig Anderton John Krogh Contact and Layout Theo Jemison
Michael Parker Laurie Blondin Patrick Wong Joshua Merrill
626-610-2434 Craig Anderton

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 PARAMETRIC EQ APPLICATIONS CHAPTER 1:
Parametric EQs are optimum for precise
applications.
PA System Basics and
Components
· Reducing hum. If there’s AC power-
related hum in a channel, dial in a frequency
of 60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). Set a narrow
(sharp) bandwidth, and cut the gain to reduce
the hum. “PA” stands for “Public Address,” and the Fig. 1: The keyboardist is
· Reducing feedback. It’s a tricky to get key word here is “public.” You want to using a boom mic stand to
this right, but parametric EQ can sometimes amplify a band, presenter, auctioneer, go over the keyboard, while
help reduce feedback. See Chapter 9 on lecturer, conference, worship service, or the singer behind him is
Troubleshooting for more details. other sound source so that the audio can using a straight,
· Separating “competing” sounds. For be heard clearly by a large group of vertical mic stand.
example, suppose a singer/songwriter is people—your listening public.
Fig. 21: Shelving filter response. There is a high-frequency
singing and playing guitar. Part of the guitar’s
boost, and low-frequency cut. The name “shelf” comes frequency range will overlap with the vocal, The most common public address system
from the fact that after the response rises or falls, it levels thus competing with the vocal sound. A fairly components are:
off into a straight line. broad cut on the guitar channel in the
vocalist’s range gives more space to the Loudspeaker. Loudspeakers convert
frequencies. So as a room fills up, the overall vocal. The exact frequency to cut depends electrical energy into acoustic energy—moving
sound might seem somewhat duller. A slight on the singer; a bass or baritone can go air that we can hear with our ears. In addition
high-frequency boost at the output can help. below 100 Hz, while a high soprano can hit to loudspeakers that are like home hi-fi
· DJ applications. DJ audiences typically notes at around 1,200 Hz (with overtones in speakers on steroids, public address systems
expect more bass than, say, a conference or either case going higher). Thus, consider often include subwoofers. These are
acoustic music concert. Boosting the bass cutting the guitar starting around 500 Hz, speakers optimized to reproduce bass, as
results in a more crowd-pleasing sound. then adjust up or down as required by bass requires more power and different Mixer. A mixer combines multiple signal
· Making presenters sound more the singer. speaker construction than higher audio sources, typically microphones and
authoritative. Conferences and lectures frequencies. Speakers are built into cabinets, instrument outputs, into a single, unified
usually don’t require high volume levels, so GRAPHIC EQ APPLICATIONS which can often mount on speaker stands, output that can then feed the power
you can get away with greater bass or treble · “Tuning” a room. A room is essentially a and include handles to simplify transportation amplifiers. However, not all situations require
boosts than you could compared to, say, a filter; a space with thick drapes, carpets, and setup. a mixer. The M-Audio GSR10 and GSR12
concert. Assuming any mics have wind and wood chairs will absorb more sounds— speakers have microphone and instrument
filters to minimize “popping” (see Chapter particularly higher frequencies—than a Power amplifier. A power amplifier receives inputs—so for simple setups, it’s possible to
2), and their low-pass filters are enabled, concrete room with metal chairs, which will incoming audio signals, and increases their feed a mic or instrument directly into the
you can make the presenter sound more be extremely bright. There will also be power so they can drive the speakers. GSR, and not require any other connections.
authoritative by boosting the bass a little on resonances that boost some frequencies, Amplifier power is measured in watts. The
his or her mixer channel strip for a fuller, and reduce others. By listening to a known higher the wattage, the louder the potential Cables. Although placing an amp and speaker
bigger sound. music source, like a favorite CD, you can levels you can achieve with your system, within a single cabinet eliminates the need to
· Increasing a presenter’s intelligibility. adjust the graphic equalizer’s faders for the although of course the speakers need to be connect these two elements with a cable, you
If people in the back row can’t understand most accurate sound. This will change as able to handle the available power. In modern, still need cables to connect the mixer to the
what a presenter is saying, boosting treble you move around the room, so try for a compact systems like the M-Audio® GSR amplifier, and input signals to the mixer.
to some extent can help intelligibility. good average setting rather than series, the amplifiers are built into the same Although you don’t need to buy ultra-expensive
· Fixing a “muddy” sound. If the PA’s optimizing the sound for a specific cabinet as the speakers. As a result, all three audiophile cables, quality cables are important
sound seems muddy, try reducing the bass “sweet spot.” elements—speaker, amplifier, and cabinet—are for reliability, and it’s crucial to always carry
at the output. · General timbre changes. You can also optimized to work together efficiently. In spares as backup.
· Fixing a strident, or harsh, sound. use a graphic equalizer to create the type of addition, this kind of system is more
Reducing treble at the output can give a timbral changes described earlier for transportable (with fewer wiring issues) Microphones. These are the mirror image of
warmer, less harsh timbre. shelving EQ. because it’s more self-contained. speakers, as they convert acoustical energy
24 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE 4 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
(such as a vocalist or instrument sound) into need to be put somewhere. There are two
electrical energy that can feed the mixer or main types of mic stands: straight and boom REVERB
power amplifier input. Microphone quality (Fig. 1). Boom stands enable you to position Some PA mixers include reverberation to
relates directly to overall sound quality, but the mic away from the stand if the stand gets simulate the effect of being in a concert hall or
fortunately, microphone prices have come into the way of, for example, an instrumentalist. large room. While this can sound impressive,
down over the years so you don’t have to most pros turn it off as the PA is already in a
spend much to get good quality. It’s also Signal processors. These devices alter the room, so adding reverb usually results in a less
possible to use wireless microphones that basic audio signal coming from a mic or distinct sound. The same is true for effects like
transmit sound as radio frequencies; a instrument to enhance the tone or quality, as delay, echo, and “chorusing.” Less is more!
receiver picks up this signal, converts it to well as compensate for deficiencies in either
audio, then feeds your mixer. Wireless the equipment or the audio source. For LIMITER
microphones help minimize clutter on stage, example, if a lecturer’s voice has a thin quality, A limiter is an electronic circuit that acts like
and are ideal for people who like to move signal processors can make the voice sound a motor’s governor—it won’t let the sound
around stage while performing. fuller and deeper. exceed a certain level. If a mixer includes a
limiter, it will usually be at the output
Microphone stands. If you’re not using The room and audience. You may not think (although some high-end mixers include
wireless microphones, you’ll need a place to of them as part of a PA system, but as we’ll limiters on individual channels).
“park” the mic. Even if a presenter likes to see later, they can have a major effect on the Fig. 22: Parametric filter response. A parametric filter can
hand-hold the mic, at some point the mic will overall sound. A limiter will have an indicator that shows when provide a peak or a notch in the frequency response.
limiting occurs, which means the signal level
(and therefore the dynamic range) is being
PA SYSTEM COMPONENTS restricted. You don’t want this to light very to create new types of sounds, and theater
often; a limiter is more of a “safety valve.” If this groups can employ effects for tricks like
Microphone light illuminates a lot, you’ll probably need to making voices sound as if they’re coming from
reduce the overall output level control. If it a different dimension. Mixers may also feature
lights a lot on channel strips, then you’ll likely built-in flanging (which imparts a “whooshing”
need to reduce the amount of channel gain. character to the sound), tremolo (a rapid,
cyclic fluctuation in level), delay (also called
COMPRESSOR echo, which produces the “shouting ‘hello’
Signal Processor A compressor also reduces dynamics but into a canyon” effect), and chorusing, which
unlike a limiter, reduces peaks and amplifies makes an individual instrument sound more
Desktop lower-level signals to maintain a more constant like an ensemble.
Microphone Stand
level. The most important controls are
threshold and ratio. Lower thresholds amplify
low-level signals more, while higher ratios
reduce high-level peaks more. While
compressors can help with presenters at
conferences where noise levels aren’t too high,
amplifying low-level signals with musical
ensembles can encourage feedback. For most
Mixer applications, leave compression off.

OTHER EFFECTS
The above are common effects for PA systems,
and are intended mainly to optimize the sound.
However, some mixers (like the M-Audio
Cable NRV10) include effects that are more properly
considered “special effects.” While it’s doubtful
Speaker
you’d use these in a conference or worship Fig. 23: A graphic EQ gets its name because the sliders
situation, DJs can use special effects artistically draw a “graph” of the frequency response.

www.m-audio.com 5 www.m-audio.com 25
CHAPTER 7: CHAPTER 2:

Amplifying Choosing and Using the

Musical Instruments Right Microphones
Compared to amplifying voice, the Pointing directly at the sound hole can give a In the studio or on stage, the mic is the
process of sending instruments through “boomy” effect, while pointing directly at the first link in the audio chain. We’ll look at
a PA system can be more complex. There bridge often sounds “thin.” which mic types work best for live use,
are two main options for amplifying then describe how to get the best sound
instruments: Harmony vocals. Mic placement tends to be from them.
further away from harmony singers than lead
· Mic acoustic sources, and feed the mic out singers, especially if two or more singers are MICROPHONE TYPES
into a mixer. sharing a mic. This is also a situation where No matter which mic you choose, two key
· Patch a direct electrical signal from electrical subtle angling can differentiate the background factors are ruggedness and directionality (the
sound sources, such as electric guitar, voices from the lead vocal. ability to pick up a particular sound source
synthesizer, electronic drums, and drum without picking up others). Fig. 2: The mic on the left is
machines, etc. through patch cords into the Wind instruments. Use a dynamic mic to the M-Audio SoundCheck,
PA system. cope with the high sound pressure level, and There are two popular mic types for PA an affordable dynamic
microphone. The one on the
back it off a foot or so from the instrument systems (Fig. 2).
right is the Nova, a
Let’s consider miking first. As explained in the being miked. With sax, the mic is generally a
condenser mic that’s also
chapter on microphones, the microphone type few inches above the bell, and pointing Dynamic microphones are physically rugged
from M-Audio.
and placement are the most important factors straight at the sax. and can handle high sound pressure sound
in sound quality. So, let’s relate these to levels, so they’re the most common choice for
various miking situations. Piano. Open up the lid and use two condenser PA systems. They also resist noise from sensitive, so they excel at reproducing
mics, one pointing at the high strings, the other handling, making them popular in hand-held transients. Large-diaphragm mics tend to
MIC PLACEMENT FOR pointing toward the lower mid/bass strings. applications (e.g., vocalists). The tradeoff is that give a “warmer” sound, and are often used
ACOUSTIC SOURCES Make sure both are far enough away from the the sound isn’t as refined as other technologies, for vocals in the studio.
Vocals. While there are several recommended hammers to avoid picking up the “thunk” when but live, these differences are negligible.
“best” ways for singers to use a mic (holding it they hit the strings. A third type of mic technology, the ribbon
away, holding it close, singing across it, Condenser microphones are common for microphone, is seldom used live due to fragility.
singing above it, singing into it, or a Drums. There are several approaches to recording due to their excellent frequency
combination of these as needed to emphasize miking drums, from having a forest of mics response and ability to respond to transients MIC PLACEMENT AND USAGE
or de-emphasize specific aspects of the song), covering every drum to a more minimalist (rapid changes in level, as from percussion). Any mic needs to be placed so that it picks up
every person’s voice requires a different approach. Less is often more, and many They’re more fragile than dynamic mics, and sound optimally—but to do that, you need to
technique because every voice is different. For people mic drums successfully with just three most models need a power supply—either from know some mic basics.
many voices, condenser mics sound best; for or four mics: a dynamic mic for the kick (either an internal battery, or from “phantom” power
others, a dynamic mic gives the right sound. just outside the head, or inside the drum), a that can be supplied by all but the least Mic Directionality
Also, refer to the chapter on Setup for tips on condenser between the snare and high-hat to expensive mixers (see Chapter 4 on Mixers).
how to avoid feedback when miking vocalists. pick them up, an overhead condenser mic However, condenser mics designed for live This is crucial for live use, as you want mics to
above the drummer’s shoulder (pointing down use are getting more rugged, and with proper pick up specific sounds and discriminate against
Acoustic guitar. It may not be necessary to toward the toms and angled away from the care, can hold up to the rigors of the road. As other sounds (e.g., you don’t want a vocal mic to
use a mic, as many acoustic guitars have cymbals), and perhaps one or two room mics. they’re sensitive to handling noise, they’re pick up instrument sounds on the same stage).
pickups and onboard preamps that feed the However, optimum placement depends on the usually mounted on mic stands. Different mics have different pickup patterns for
output directly into a mixer. If that isn’t an option, drum set, the desired prominence of different specific applications, sort of like cameras—some
the mic of choice is generally a condenser type drum sounds in the mix, the drummer’s There are two common condenser mic “see” only a small part of what we can see with
pointed between the sound hole and the bridge. individual setup, etc. types. Small-diaphragm mics are more our eyes, but there are also cameras with wide-
26 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE 6 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
angle lenses, panorama cameras, etc. See Fig. 3 Guitar and bass amps. Many amps now addition to live performance applications,
for pickup pattern diagrams. include electrical direct outputs designed Eleven Rack doubles as a computer interface
specifically for feeding mixers and PA systems. for Pro Tools LE® recording software.) Setup
Cardioid (unidirectional) mics pick up only those If you can, use these to keep your life simple! is easy, as you simply plug the guitar into the
sounds in front of the mic. Thus the mic can But if that’s not possible, with a single-speaker Eleven Rack input, and plug the outputs into
“aim” at a vocalist or instrumentalist. Popular cabinet, point a dynamic mic at the center of your PA system.
examples of M-Audio microphones are the the speaker, a few inches away from the grille
SoundCheck (a rugged, unidirectional dynamic), cloth, or move the mic more toward the edge Another option is loading amp modeling and
Nova® (a large-diaphragm condenser), and of the speaker for a thinner, “tighter” sound. If effects software (such as Avid Eleven) into a
Pulsar II (a small-diaphragm type designed for the cabinet has multiple speakers, try miking laptop computer or even one of the more
studio use, but suitable for live). just one. Also remember that when miked, a powerful netbooks. This requires an audio
small, low-power amp can sound just as big as interface that connects to the computer’s USB
Hypercardioid (also called supercardioid) mics a stack of amps—without causing leakage port, FireWire port, or card slot (e.g., PCMCIA
have an even narrower sound field. They’re a problems into other mics. or ExpressCard) to provide physical audio
good choice for vocalists fronting loud bands. inputs and outputs. Like Eleven Rack, the
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS guitar plugs into the input, and the outputs go
Omnidirectional mics pick up sounds from all This category includes synthesizers, electronic to the main PA mixer. Note that the audio
directions. They can be useful with conferences, drums, stage pianos, drum machines, and the interface must have an input that’s designed
where you have many people speaking but may like. These instruments typically produce line- specifically to accommodate guitar.
not have a mic for each person, and volume level, unbalanced signals, and can plug directly
levels aren’t particularly loud. into a suitable mixer channel input. They often Setups for electric bass are similar.
include onboard signal processors, so they get
Figure 8 mics tend to be ribbon types, which as their “sound” before going into the PA mixer, SINGER/SONGWRITER SETUP
noted, are rarely used live. However, some and require no adjustments other than level. You can insert a microphone or line-level input
condenser mics can also achieve this response. into a powered speaker such as the GSR10
Some players with extensive stage setups and GSR12, so having two of these speakers is
Mic Placement Issues (e.g., a keyboard player with multiple ideal for a simple, highly portable singer/
keyboards, each with its own set of outputs) songwriter setup. The mic goes into one
The proximity effect is most pronounced with might also use a submixer. A submixer is speaker’s mic input, while the output from an
dynamic cardioid types—as you get closer to conceptually like a standard mixer, but is electric piano, synthesizer, or preamp output
the mic, the apparent bass response rises. usually designed to mix several line-level from an acoustic guitar can go into the other
Singers with good mic technique use this to inputs, eliminating the need for mic preamps, speaker’s line-level input. This eliminates the
Fig. 3: The top polar pattern shows a cardioid response;
their advantage: On soft, intimate parts they’ll extensive EQ, and so on. Once the player need for a mixer, and each can have its level
note how it rejects sounds from the rear. The middle
hold the mic close to the mouth, to exaggerate pattern shows an omnidirectional response, which picks
achieves the desired instrumental balance with adjusted independently. Note: This is a situation
the bass and give a warmer sound. Acoustic up sounds from all directions. The bottom pattern
the submixer, then its master stereo output can where the GSR tone options can make a huge
guitars can also use the proximity effect for a shows a figure-eight response, so-called because it be sent to the main PA mixer. difference to the overall sound—try them all.
more bass-heavy sound. In any event, either picks up sounds from the front and back of the mic.
use it to your advantage or compensate for it. ELECTRIC GUITAR AND
sound (be careful, though; with some mics the BASS “DIRECT” SETUPS
The inverse square law states that the sound “entrance” is at the top, and with others, at the Carting around a big amp and lots of signal
level drops dramatically the further the mic is side—check your mic’s documentation). Having processors can get pretty tiresome, so many
from the sound source. This can be a problem the mic at an angle produces a somewhat guitarists downsize their setups to compact
with vocalists who lack good mic technique, mellower, less “direct” sound. digital processors. These digital processors
alternately “swallowing” the mic and then emulate the sounds of effects, amps, and even
backing away, without changing their volume Understanding these three issues helps you particular mikings of those amps.
to compensate. decide how to mic particular sound sources.
For example, soft sound sources require having A good example is the Avid® Eleven® Rack.
The mic’s angle in relation to the sound source the mic up close, but you may need to decrease It includes a variety of amp, effects, and mic
affects tone. Generally, aiming the mic’s element the bass response (see Chapter 6 on signal models, making it possible to get a complete
at the sound source results in the brightest processing, as well as the section on guitar sound in a single, portable box. (In
www.m-audio.com 7 www.m-audio.com 27
 Fig. 4: A pop filter prevents wind noise and might be so loud it overloads a mixer’s mic
CHAPTER 8: plosives from getting into a mic, and also blocks input. Enabling the pad switch will
minimize distortion.

Sound Check
breath moisture, which can have negative
effects on mic elements.
Reducing Feedback

Feedback occurs when a signal from the speaker

Now that everything is set up, it’s time to gets into the mic, and therefore gets re-amplified.
test out the system and make sure Fixing feedback involves several elements of any
everything works and sounds as expected. PA system: Speaker placement, mixer control
settings, and mics. Using directional mics that
“RINGING OUT” THE SYSTEM point away from speakers, and avoiding the
The optimum situation is to check out the proximity effect are two ways to reduce the
sound with the performers or presenters who possibility of feedback at the mic itself. For more
will be playing through the system. However, information, see Chapter 9 on Troubleshooting.
this isn’t always possible, so you may need to Fig. 24: The GSR series speakers include a “Thru” jack that
set up hours beforehand when the rest of the can pass the input signal from one GSR speaker to another Dealing with “Thin” Sounds
people aren’t around. GSR speaker’s input.

Optimizing the Sound toward the end of this If you’re using two mics with an instrument like
Many sound engineers bring a portable CD inward may give better coverage for a larger chapter) to compensate for the proximity effect. piano, you can run into phasing problems if
player or other portable music player with segment of the audience. each mic picks up a different portion of the
music they know very well, like a favorite CD, With louder sound sources like wind sound wave. This can result in a “thin,” unnatural
and play that through the system after setup to If the bass from the subwoofer seems weak in instruments, you can back the mic away a bit, sound. If your mixer has a Phase switch for each
get a rough idea of the system’s performance. some spots, place the back of the subwoofer and there won’t be major volume variations if channel, try flipping this for one of the mics in
You can use this music to check for several against the wall, or even at the corner of two the player moves around a bit. When miking the pair. If this solves the problem, fine.
sonic qualities. walls. Any sound coming from the something like a guitar amp, you have a lot of Otherwise, for more information on how to solve
subwoofer’s back bounces off the wall, latitude on mic placement—the standard is to this problem, refer to Chapter 9.
Coverage. While the music is playing, walk reinforcing the main bass signal. Although not point it at the middle of the speaker in a
around the room. Ideally, the sound should be necessarily a common technique, some sound speaker cabinet, but different placements can Reducing Wind and Breath Noise
identical wherever you are, but this is seldom engineers diffuse the bass sound more by yield different tones.
the case. You may need to change the speaker pointing the subwoofer front toward a corner. The rush of air from sounds like “b” and “p”
angle and/or height somewhat to obtain the This can increase the apparent amount of OPTIMIZING THE SOUND can produce nasty pops. Also, wind noise can
most uniform coverage. bass, as well as cause the wall to vibrate, Now that you’ve chosen your mics and set them create similar problems. You can use a cover
which creates additional bass. up, here are several ways to optimize the sound. made of acoustic foam that slips over the
With the M-Audio GSR series speakers, it’s mic’s head and reduces these sounds—or use
possible to daisy-chain up to three speaker Tone. As mentioned previously, the tone can Mic Switches a clip-on nylon mesh screen filter between the
cabinets (Fig. 24). This provides many change dramatically depending on the number vocalist and the mic (Fig. 4).
additional speaker placement options. For of people in a room. Therefore, when “ringing Mics often include switches for tailoring the
example, you may get better coverage by out” a PA (a term pros use to describe the sound, such as: Extending Microphone Life
stacking a speaker on top of another sound check process), you mainly need to
speaker, or by placing the two side by side— analyze the room’s character so that you can · On/off (mute) switch. This is handy Abused mics may continue to function, but
experiment to determine which is best, as make adjustments later. For example, if the room when, for example, handing a mic from one lose sound quality. Always store mics in their
acoustics vary considerably from room has really hard surfaces, the PA may sound a person to another, or briefly turning off the protective cases.
to room. little bright during sound check but if the room mic if a sneeze or cough is imminent.
fills up, then some of the highs will be · Low-cut filter. These reduce low-frequency CABLES AND CONNECTORS
Placement is particularly important for high absorbed. It’s also worth trying the different content. If a vocalist’s or lecturer’s “b” and Cables connect the various PA elements,
frequencies. As you walk around the room, tone options in the GSR series speakers “p” sounds cause a loud “popping,” or the providing a way for signals to get from one
make sure that everyone has a straight line of (Normal, Hi-Fi, DJ, and Voice—see Fig. 26) as proximity effect is a problem, turn the filter on. place to another. In the next chapter, we’ll cover
sight with the speakers (Fig. 25). If not, angling you may find that one option gives a better · Pad switch. This reduces the mic’s how to choose the right cable, as well as get
multiple speakers somewhat outward or overall sound for a particular room than another. sensitivity. For example, a loud guitar amp the best performance out of your cables.
28 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE 8 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
CHAPTER 3:

Balanced/Unbalanced
Lines and Connectors
Cables for unbalanced lines have two As for jacks, you can’t tell whether 1/4” phone
conductors, while balanced lines have jacks are designed for balanced or unbalanced
three conductors (don’t confuse this with lines from the outside. However, most
typical stereo cables, which also have equipment manufacturers will label their jacks
three conductors; balanced lines are for (Fig. 8) so you know what type they are. XLR
carrying a single, monophonic signal). jacks (Fig. 9) are balanced; you can see three
Balanced lines can help reject holes for the three plug pins.
interference from sources like fluorescent
light buzzes, hum, and even radio A relatively recent type of jack, the
frequencies from passing mobile combination jack (Fig. 10), gets its name
transmitters (e.g., taxis, CB radio)—as because it combines XLR and 1/4” phone jack
long as they connect to inputs and capabilities—you can insert either type of plug
outputs whose circuitry is designed to (but of course, not both at the same time).
take advantage of balanced lines. This With 1/4” phone connections, the combo jack
technology is particularly useful with low- can work with balanced or unbalanced lines.
level signals, as the interference might be
almost as strong as the signal itself. Another unbalanced connector, the phono
connector (Fig. 11), is more common with
Unbalanced lines are more common, and consumer gear. However, some PA mixers
include guitar cords as well as most hi-fi include RCA phono jacks for one or two inputs
cables. Unbalanced cables don’t reject in case you need to interface with something
interference as well, but they’re generally less like a portable CD player. (Phono connectors
expensive, and work fine in applications with are also used for S/PDIF digital signals.)
strong signal levels.
Here are guidelines about which type of gear
The two different types of lines can use different uses which type of line and connector.
connectors. Fig. 5 shows an unbalanced 1/4”
phone plug; note that it has two sections, one Microphones. Almost all mics for PA
for each line. This is also called a TS type of plug applications use balanced lines and XLR
because it has a “tip” and a “sleeve” section. connectors.

Fig. 6 shows a balanced 1/4” phone plug. Synthesizers and other electric
These are called TRS (tip-ring-sleeve) instruments. Many of these devices offer
connectors because they have three sections: balanced line outputs that work with balanced
The tip and sleeve (like a standard unbalanced or unbalanced lines. Unless the cable run is
phone connector) but also, a third “ring” very long or there are audible sources of
section in between the tip and the sleeve. interference, unbalanced lines will work fine.

Fig. 7 shows an XLR plug, as used for Turntable preamps, portable CD players,
balanced connections. The three pins connect etc. These consumer devices typically use
to the three conductors. unbalanced lines with RCA phono
www.m-audio.com 9
 necessary, you may want to try yet another
change and A-B the new sound with the
winner of the previous A-B comparison.

ADJUSTING FOR ROOM RESONANCES

As mentioned in the Signal Processing chapter,
some mixers have graphic equalizers at the
outputs. These make it easier to “tune” a room,
but proper adjustment requires some experience.

When you listen back to a CD you know well,

analyze whether any parts of the frequency
spectrum sound different than normal. For
example, if the upper midrange sounds harsh,
there may be a room resonance that accents
this part of the spectrum. Try bringing down a
graphic EQ slider in the 3–5 kHz range, and
listen for whether that makes a smoother overall
response. Conversely, if there are lots of soft
surfaces, then part of the midrange may sound
attenuated, which can make presenters sound
less distinct. In this case, a slight upper-
midrange boost might solve the problem.

CHECKING SOUND LEVELS

Some areas have ordinances that govern the
maximum sound level for particular venues. To
make sure you are in compliance, use a
sound level meter. These devices have a
calibrated microphone and meter that shows
the level being produced at the location
where you’re checking levels. Sound level
meters are available from electronics stores
Fig. 25: Pole-mounting a speaker on top of the woofer like Radio Shack, although there are also
can often provide better high-frequency coverage for iPhone and iPod Touch apps that provide
your audience. sound level metering.

If a room has a lot of soft surfaces—curtains,

plush seats, a packed house, etc.—then you may
find that the Hi-Fi setting gives a more balanced
sound than the Normal setting.

Veterans will tell you experimentation is key,

and it is. However, be careful. Switching from
one tone to another may sound great because
it’s a change that sounds fresh, not necessarily
because it’s better. When you make any
change, live with it for a while, then switch
back to how it was originally. Do this a couple Fig. 26: The GSR series’ Tone switch tailors the speaker’s
times to choose the “winner.” Then if response to different environments.

30 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE

 CHAPTER 9:

TROUBLESHOOTING
Once you learn the basics of running a speaker again, hits the mic again, gets amplified
PA, you’ll find the process to be some more, and so on—creating what’s called a
relatively trouble-free. However, there feedback loop. As mentioned in Chapter 2,
Fig. 6: A balanced (TRS) 1/4” phone plug. Note there are
will be times when you encounter there’s no “magic bullet” for fixing feedback
three sections, separated by black insulating bands—the
tip, the ring, and the ground. These are also called stereo
problems, and these tips should help because the primary cause could be mic
plugs when used to carry two independent left and right
get you through most of them. placement, speaker placement, mixer control
channel signals. settings, equalization, or even how a vocalist
SOLVING “OUT OF PHASE” holds the mic. Here are tips on reducing the
PROBLEMS potential for feedback.
Fig. 5: An unbalanced 1/4” phone plug. Note the tip, Phasing problems typically occur when you’re
the black insulating band, and ground. The flare using two mics on a single sound source (e.g., Use directional mics; never use omni-
toward the base of the jack provides a stronger grip
miking a piano), and each mic picks up a directional mics. The mics should point
when inserted into a jack.
different portion of the sound wave. For away from the loudspeakers and toward the
Fig. 7: An XLR example, if one picks up the wave’s peak while sound source.
plug, as used for another picks up the wave’s trough, the
balanced line sounds will cancel to some degree (see Fig. Set up mics behind the main speakers.
connections. 27; note that we’re simplifying for the sake of This reduces the chance of sound from the
illustration). Although each mic might sound speakers entering the mics (Fig. 28). The
connections. Since cable runs are usually Mixer inputs. The mic inputs will accept fine by itself, when combined the sound can downside is that this also makes it difficult for
short, unbalanced lines are not a problem. balanced lines with XLR jacks. The line ins seem “hollow” or “thin.” The sonic change vocalists or lecturers to hear what they sound
usually accept either balanced or unbalanced when a jet flies overhead comes from phase like through the speakers, which is why monitor
Portable MP3 players. These use stereo lines via 1/4” jacks, but some higher-end gear changes as you hear different reflections. speakers or reference earphones are commonly
mini-jack and plug connectors, which resemble uses XLR jacks for balanced line-level signals. used in PA setups (see Chapter 4).
1/4” phone types but are smaller (Fig. 12). To check for phase issues, your mixer will
Most pro audio gear does not accept this type Powered speakers. Models like the M-Audio probably have a phase switch that reverses the Avoid “swallowing” the mic. Vocalists who
of connector, so you if you want to use one, GSR series powered speakers accept the line- mic preamp’s phase. If flipping the phase switch hold the mic very close often run a greater risk
you’ll likely need an adapter that converts the level signals coming from today’s mixers and on one of two mics creates a
stereo mini-jack output to two separate, include combo jacks, so they can interface bigger, “fatter” sound when
unbalanced lines, typically terminated in 1/4” with whatever connector your mixer uses. they’re mixed together, then
phone or phono plugs. leave the phase flipped. If there’s
IMPEDANCE: NO WORRIES! no phase switch, moving the mic
Electric guitar and bass. Almost all use With today’s PA systems, impedance (which, a few inches closer or further
unbalanced lines. to simplify greatly, represents the “friction” away will often reduce the
problem. Your goal is the best
possible sound when the two
mic signals are mixed together.

Fig. 8: The M-Audio DMP3 preamp

DEALING WITH
has output jacks toward the left, FEEDBACK
but looking at the jacks, you Feedback is that annoying howl Fig. 27: Sound waves emanate from the sound source, and two mics

wouldn’t know whether they’re that occurs when a signal from are positioned to pick up these sound waves. However, one picks up
the signal’s trough while the other picks up the signal’s peak, causing
balanced or unbalanced. So, the speaker enters the mic, gets
the combined signal to cancel to some degree.
they’re labeled as being balanced. amplified, comes out of the
www.m-audio.com 11 www.m-audio.com 31
 Fig. 9: The XLR jack is the large, round
Fig. 28: Top view of a stage setup. The main speakers face the connector toward the left. Also note the red LED
audience, with the performers and microphones set up behind the to its lower left, which indicates that phantom
main speakers. Additional monitor speakers face the performers so power to the mic is enabled.
they can hear themselves.

of feedback than if the mic is an inch or two the indicator relates to a preamp, reduce the Fig. 10: The combination XLR jack is toward the left, and accepts
away. This is because the “proximity effect” preamp gain. If the indicator relates to the overall both XLR and 1/4” phone plugs.
increases the amount of bass, which system (e.g., the clipping indicator on a power
encourages feedback in the bass frequencies. amp lights), then you need to reduce the master
volume or all the faders feeding the master output. audio signals encounter at inputs and outputs, system directly, you’ll probably need to use a
Try adjusting the equalization. When Granted the system won’t be as loud, but a softer and is measured in ohms) isn’t something you preamp to match impedance and boost the
feedback starts, it will be at a specific sound is a better option than a distorted one. need to know much about—just follow a few level. However, if the guitar goes through
frequency. Solo each channel to find out which basic guidelines. various effects, a multi-effects processor, or a
one is triggering the feedback. Set the EQ for Second, distortion may be occurring in the pedalboard, these will almost certainly generate
a steep notch, then sweep the frequency sound source itself. A damaged mic, for Microphones. Almost all PA microphones have enough level to feed line-level mixer inputs.
control until you find the frequency that example (e.g., it’s been dropped a couple times) a low-impedance output and generate low-level
minimizes the feedback. While this may affect may have a fuzzy, distorted sound. Distortion— signals. So, connect low-impedance mic outputs Powered speakers. Models like the M-Audio
the timbre of the sound going through that intentional or unintentional—can also happen in to low-impedance mixer mic inputs (Chapter 4) GSR series aren’t very sensitive to impedance,
channel, the reduced feedback may be worth something like an instrument amplifier. as these inputs are designed specifically to so simply plugging the mixer output into the
it. You may even be able to find another accept low-level, low-impedance signals. speaker’s input will do the job. With older, non-
feedback frequency on another channel, REDUCING HUMS AND BUZZES powered speakers, the rules regarding
reduce that, and have even more level before Hums and buzzes are generally from one of Synthesizers, turntable preamps, impedance are pretty simple too: Match the
feedback occurs. If the feedback seems to two sources. portable music players, etc. These speaker impedance with the same impedance
occur in all channels, you may need to adjust invariably have low-impedance inputs and output on your powered mixer or power amp.
EQ at the mixer output. A graphic equalizer will The first is lighting dimmers or fluorescent generate high-level (“line-level”) signals. For example, if an amp has 4- and 8-ohm
likely not allow for fine enough adjustment lights that generate interference. Mic preamps, Impedance matching is not an issue if you outputs, and the speaker is rated at 8 ohms,
compared to a parametric equalizer, but if cables, guitar pickups, and other sensitive or simply plug their outputs into mixer inputs that plug it into the 8-ohm output.
you’re lucky, the feedback frequency might high-gain circuits can easily pick up this handle line levels.
correspond to a graphic EQ filter frequency. interference. It’s simple to test for if this is the CABLES
problem: Turn off the lights and see if the Electric guitar and bass. These are special Here are tips on the care and handling
MINIMIZING DISTORTION problem goes away. If the problem relates to cases, because the output impedances are too of cables.
Distortion can occur in several places in the dimmers, turning the dimmer all the way up or high for mic inputs, while the signal levels are
system (see the section on Gain-Staging in down will usually solve the problem. too high for mic inputs but too low for line-level · Assess what kind of cables you need to
Chapter 5). First, check to see if any clipping Incandescent bulbs that don’t use dimmers are inputs. Some mixers have special guitar inputs; connect your various pieces of gear. Don’t
indicators light when the distortion occurs. If least problematic. otherwise, if you plan to plug a guitar into a PA buy longer cables just because they’ll work
32 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE 12 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
 Some appliances can also generate sure that the AC source is not overloaded and
interference. If lights aren’t the problem, check is rated properly to handle the gear plugged
whether unplugging appliances on the same into it.
circuit reduces any buzzes. In many cases,
purchasing a line filter and making it part of A more expensive, but almost always effective,
your PA setup is good insurance against these solution is isolating the piece of gear where
types of buzzes and hums. However, any filters the ground loop occurs by patching the audio
need to be rated for sufficient power to handle through a 1:1 audio isolation transformer. This
a PA system—the kind for home entertainment interrupts the ground connection, but still
systems won’t be up to the task. allows the signal to pass.

The second problem involves ground loops. A Another option—although the most expensive
ground loop means there is more than one one—is using an AC power isolation
ground path available to a device. In Fig. 29, transformer to power your gear. This can also
one path goes from device A to ground via the provide ancillary benefits: clean up noise from
AC power cord’s ground terminal, but A also the AC line, reduce spikes and transients, and
sees a path to ground through the shielded provide performance almost equal to that of a
Fig. 11: The M-Audio Fast Track Pro audio interface offers balanced TRS 1/4” phone jack outputs, but note the cable and AC ground of device B. Because separate AC line.
four RCA phono output connectors to the left of the TRS output jacks. The inset shows an RCA phono plug.
ground wires have some resistance (the
electronic equivalent of friction), there can be a If you have a lot of microprocessor-controlled
for shorter runs too—have a selection of · The metal in plugs and jacks can oxidize voltage difference between the two ground gear and less-than-ideal AC power, adding
short and long cables, then use the over time, degrading the connection. Squirt lines, thus causing small amounts of current to isolation transformers can solve various AC-
appropriate length. some contact cleaner (available at stores like flow through ground. This signal may get related problems and get rid of ground loops.
· Have plenty of spare cables as backup. Radio Shack, or a more pro product like induced into the hot conductor. The loop can If you just have a simple ground loop problem,
Cables are generally reliable, but can fail Caig’s DeoxIT) on the plug, then plug and also act like an antenna for hum and radio then patching in audio isolation transformers in
(and always seem to fail at the most unplug a couple dozen times. This will frequencies. Furthermore, many components in specific audio lines may be all you need.
inopportune time). remove the oxidation and improve the contact. a circuit connect to ground. If that ground is
· Use balanced lines with mics. · Connect all your cables before turning on “dirty,” the circuit might pick up the noise. Granted, solving any hum and buzz problems
· For relatively short cable runs—under 20-25 power to your PA system. If you must Ground loops cause the most problems with may sound daunting. Fortunately, in most
feet or so—unbalanced lines are fine for connect or disconnect a cable while power high-gain circuits like mic preamps, as massive cases you won’t have to worry about these
outputs from musical instruments like is on, turn off the amplifier or powered amplification of even a couple millivolts of issues, particularly in smaller setups.
keyboards, direct outputs from guitar and speakers, then turn them back on again noise can be objectionable.
bass amps, and the like. But, there’s certainly when all connections are made.
no harm in using balanced lines if the gear · Always have some adapters on hand, like One supposed “fix” is to “lift”
accommodates them. XLR to 1/4”. You never know when to the AC ground by plugging a
· Always unplug cables by grasping the plug, expect the unexpected. three-wire cord into a 3-to-2
never by pulling on the wire. adapter. However, this is
· Avoid sharp cable bends, stepping on cables, definitely not recommended
rolling heavy objects over them, and running as it eliminates the safety
them near power lines or heat sources. protection afforded by a
· Where cables are exposed to the public, grounded chassis. Don’t do it.
tape them to the floor with non-residue
gaffer’s tape. Make sure people can’t trip A better solution is to plug all
over them. equipment into the same
· Carry cable ties (available at office supply grounded AC source, which
stores) to bundle cables together for a attaches all ground leads to a
neater setup. However, don’t bundle cables Fig. 12: This stereo mini-plug single ground point (for Fig. 29: When a device can take two separate paths to ground, this
carrying strong signals (like speaker looks like a smaller version of a example, a barrier strip that creates a ground loop. Whether it matters or not depends on several
factors, such as the “dirtiness” of AC power, and also, whether the device
connections) with cables carrying low-level 1/4” stereo or balanced plug—and feeds an AC outlet through a
that’s exactly what it is. is high-gain or not.
signals (like mics), as there may be crosstalk. short cord). However, make
www.m-audio.com 13 www.m-audio.com 33
CHAPTER 10: CHAPTER 4:

GLOSSARY Speaker, Mixer, and

Amplifier
A device with an input that receives weak
Fader
A volume control, typically with a linear path
Monitor Setup
electrical signals, makes them stronger, then rather than a rotary one.
sends them to an output suitable for driving
loudspeakers. Note that while amplifiers are Input Channel Where you put the speakers, mixer, mics,
available as separate devices, they are often The part of a mixer dedicated to a particular and performers has a huge impact on the
built into speaker cabinets or mixers as a input. It will typically have an input and fader to audience experience as well as the
matter of convenience. regulate the volume, but can also include effectiveness of the PA system itself. We’ll
equalization, effects, meters, clipping look at the optimum placement for these
Auxiliary Send indicators, and other elements designed to elements, but first, let’s consider the
See Send Bus. enhance the mixing process. proper order for turning on pieces of gear.

Cable Jack The most important point to remember is to

Wire that has connectors on both ends, and is A connector for cables that receive or send turn on the amplifier (or powered speaker
designed to interconnect pieces of gear. signals among devices. “Female” jacks receive systems) last, after all connections have
signals from “male” plugs. been made. Plugging and unplugging
Clipping devices while the system is on can make
The phenomenon that occurs when an input Level loud pops that are bad for your speakers and
signal exceeds the headroom (dynamic range) Another term for volume or loudness. For bad for your ears. Likewise, always power-up
that a system can handle, thus distorting the example, increasing a mixer channel’s level your system with the mixer’s master volume
waveform because it cannot be reproduced control will increase the volume of the signal control (or powered speaker level controls)
accurately. going into that channel. at zero—full off. Turn up the gain only when
you know that all is well.
Clipping Indicator Line Level
A light, typically found on mixer channels and A relatively strong signal level, such as what SPEAKER POSITIONING Fig. 13: In a small auditorium, angling the speakers
amplifier outputs, that indicates when a emanates from electronic musical instruments, The primary rule for speaker positioning is to slightly inward toward the audience can improve
signal exceeds the maximum available CD players, MP3 players, and the like. place (from the audience’s viewpoint) any coverage. You may even be able to get away with using
headroom. When a clipping indicator lights, speakers in front of the mics used by only one speaker.
you need to turn down the level in the Mic Level performers or presenters, with as much
system (either at individual mixer channels, or A relatively weak signal level, specifically what distance as possible between the mics and mounting the speakers even higher provides
the master level if clipping occurs in the emanates from a microphone. speakers. This allows for the maximum gain better coverage.
power amplifier). before feedback. One exception is DJ setups if
Microphone a microphone is not a major part of the The GSR10 and GSR12 speakers allow for
Distortion A transducer that converts acoustical energy performance. In this case, speakers can be on a stacking up to two speakers vertically, using an
What happens when a waveform cannot be to electrical energy. horizontal line with the DJ or even slightly interlock system that fastens the top of one
reproduced properly for one reason or another behind, and if the DJ has a wireless mic, he can speaker to the bottom of an identical speaker
(e.g., inadequate power-handling capacity). Master Volume step behind the speaker for announcements. model. The extra height can improve coverage
The control on a mixer that regulates the dramatically. To avoid tip-overs, make sure the
Equalizer overall level of the sum of all channels. When mounted on speaker mounting tripods, combination is stable and out the way of the
A device that alters the signal level at specific speakers should be higher than the audience audience and performers.
frequencies, for example, making the higher Mixer and tightened down so they cannot move or
frequencies softer to prevent a shrill or “tinny” A device that combines multiple signal sources rotate on the tripods. If someone walks in front To provide the best coverage with two
sound, or increasing the level of lower (typically microphones and instrument outputs) of the speaker, the speaker itself should be speakers, mount them toward the left and right
frequencies to give more bass. and sends a combined signal into an amplifier. higher than the person; in some venues, sides of the stage, and angle them slightly
34 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE 14 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
toward the middle—draw an imaginary line
down the middle of the audience, and aim the They include controls to adjust the relative Powered Mixer
speakers to a point about three-quarters of the level of each signal source in order to achieve A mixer that contains a built-in power amplifier,
way toward the far end of the room (Fig. 13). a proper audio balance. Mixers are specified and therefore can drive speaker cabinets that
Note that high frequencies emanating from a as having a certain number of channels—e.g., a don’t include built-in amplifiers directly.
loudspeaker are highly directional, whereas 4-channel mixer can accept four different input
low frequencies can bend around objects in a sources, while a 16-channel mixer can accept Powered Speaker
room. If everyone in the audience can see the 16 different input sources. A speaker cabinet/system that includes a built-
speaker(s), they’ll likely be able to hear the in amplifier. This approach allows matching the
high frequencies. This also means that Monitor Speakers amplifier and speaker.
subwoofers (like the GSR18) do not need to Speakers placed in front of performers to let
be raised, and in fact, will sound better if they them hear themselves. These are not intended Proximity Effect
sit on the floor or the stage (which is fortunate, to be heard by the audience, and may be A phenomenon generally associated with
as subwoofers are heavy). Furthermore, smaller than the main speakers. Common dynamic cardioid mics where as the vocalist
special pole mounts are available for mounting monitor speakers are wedges, so called gets closer to the mic, the apparent bass
a GSR10 or GSR12 above the GSR18, because they sit on the floor, and project response rises.
providing an optimized high-frequency/low- sound upward and toward the performer.
frequency speaker pair. Return
Panpot A mixer input that receives the output from a
SPEAKERS AND WALLS With stereo setups, this is a per-channel mixer signal processor fed by an auxiliary or send bus.
The audience doesn’t hear only the sound from control that determines whether a signal will
Fig. 14: Person “A” may actually hear better sound quality
the speakers, but sounds reflected off the be heard mostly from the left side, right side, Send Bus
than person “B,” who’s closer to the speaker, depending on
walls and other objects. If there’s a significant center, or for that matter, anywhere in the A separate submix from a mixer that combines
a variety of factors.
time difference between these two sound stereo field. When PA setups are set up in various amounts of signals from different
sources, music becomes less distinct, and reflection from the back wall. This person will mono, the panpot is left at the center position. channels. This is used for two main purposes.
presenters less intelligible. hear reasonably good sound quality because One is to provide a mix separate from the main
the difference between these two sound Phantom Power mix that goes to the performers (either to
Sound travels at about one foot per millisecond sources will be less than 30 feet, the angled Most condenser microphones require a power headphones or monitor speakers), as this mix
(a thousandth of a second, or ms). While delays sounds coming off the wall won’t be that source in order to function correctly. Rather may need to be different from what the
under about 30ms are generally not perceived different in length than the direct sound, and the than have a power source inside the mic or in audience hears (e.g., vocalists might want to
as objectionable, delays over 30ms produce an rear reflection will be much weaker anyway. On a separate unit that connects to the mic, a hear themselves louder than other
echo effect. Ideally, for an audience member the the other hand, person “B” will hear the sound phantom power system sends power (typically instruments). The other is to add signal
difference in distance between the speaker and from the speaker, long side reflections from the +48 volts) along the microphone cable. processing to channels in various degrees by
the nearest reflective hard surface (which will walls, and a reflection from the back of the Dynamic microphones do not need phantom feeding a signal processor. For example, you
produce the loudest reflection) will be 30 feet room—which may be a problem if the back wall power, but if enabled accidentally, will seldom might want to send a lot of vocal signal to a
or less. Of course this is not always possible, is hard and reflects a lot of the sound’s energy. suffer damage from receiving phantom power. reverb unit to add a sense of spaciousness,
but the closer you can come to this ideal, the This is one reason why speakers are angled but send only a little bit of the guitar and none
better. Also note that the longer the reflection toward the middle-to-rear of the audience, as Phone Connector of the drums. The knob that determines the
path, the weaker the sound. So even though a the more direct sound will be louder than the A type of connector for balanced or amount of signal that’s sent is called a send
reflection might be more than 30 feet away, if it reflections and minimize any echo effect. unbalanced lines, typically found in semi-pro control or aux send control.
has to travel a considerable distance (especially and pro audio gear. It is also called a 1/4”
if there are absorptive surfaces in the room, like POSITIONING THE MIXER phone connector because the barrel of the XLR Connector
people, clothing, drapes, etc.) it won’t have as At professional concerts, the person mixing the plug, or hole of the jack, has a 1/4” diameter. A three-pin connector used with balanced
much influence. sound is usually stationed toward the center- lines and found in pro audio gear.
middle of the hall, in order to hear what the Phono Connector
Sounds bouncing off a side wall tend to be less audience hears. This is not always practical in A type of connector for unbalanced lines
problematic than sounds bouncing off a wall other situations, especially since long cable typically found on consumer hi-fi gear. Also
behind the speaker, or in front of it. Referring to runs (called “snakes”) are necessary to called an RCA connector.
Fig. 14, person “A” in the back of the hall will connect the mixer to the mics on stage, as well
hear the direct sound from the speaker, and the as to the speakers at the side of the stage.
www.m-audio.com 15 www.m-audio.com 35
 NOTES

36 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE

A common approach for smaller venues (e.g.,
conference rooms in convention centers) is to
put a “wedge” monitor speaker in front of a
performer, pointing up to them at a 45-degree NOTES
position the mixer off to one side, fairly close to angle (Fig. 15). Using hypercardioid mics
one of the speakers. The person doing the minimizes pickup of the sound coming from
mixing will hear the direct speaker sound; while these speakers, and the volume levels needn’t
this doesn’t take room reflections into account, be high as the speakers are pointing directly at
the balance among sound sources for those the performer from a short distance away.
hearing the direct speaker sound will be correct Both the GSR10 and GSR12 speakers can
(or at least, be what the mixer hears). function as wedge monitor speakers when laid
on their sides. The GSR10 is ideal for this
In situations where the person doing the mixing application due to its smaller size, making it
should not be visible for aesthetic reasons (such less obtrusive to the audience.
as plays), or there is no room in front of the
stage for a mixer, one option is to have the mixer TONAL SETUP
off to the side of the stage, just behind the edge Adjusting the overall tone to match a particular
of a curtain. The mixer will need to rely on venue can improve the sound quality
headphones and during sound check, confirm dramatically. One common solution is to use an
that what’s being heard in the headphones is equalizer (either one built in to the mixer, or
representative of what the audience is hearing. added in the signal path between mixer and
amplifier), but the M-Audio GSR10 and GSR12
POSITIONING PERFORMERS OR speakers take a simpler approach by offering
PRESENTERS four “tuning” modes that optimize the speakers
As mentioned, mics should be behind the for specific types of applications and rooms.
speakers to minimize feedback. When Normal mode is the standard listening mode,
performers use mic stands, they can be with flat response. Hi-Fi gives more presence for
positioned in place. Wireless mics are more of music playback in an application like a school
a problem, particularly with lead singers who dance or when providing background music. DJ
like to “work the crowd,” or motivational mode boosts the lows and gives more definition,
speakers who roam the stage. These people thus providing a “DJ sound” even at relatively
need to be told beforehand to avoid moving in low volumes.
front of the speakers, and whoever is mixing
should watch them closely and reduce the Voice mode is optimized when plugging a mic
gain if it appears that their movement might directly into the GSR10 and GSR12 for
result in feedback. Hypercardioid mics work conferences, boardroom meetings, seminars,
well in this context, and the person should and other applications where all you really
speak or sing close to the mic so that the need is an amplified voice (no music) and
voice’s level is much louder than any sound aren’t using a mixer.
that might be coming from the speakers.

POSITIONING MONITORS
The performers will not hear themselves
accurately since they are standing behind the
speakers. For some people, like presenters,
this doesn’t really matter. For singers, it can be
crucial because they may not be able to stay
on pitch if they can’t hear themselves.

In-ear reference earphones, which resemble Fig. 15: If leaned on their sides,
earbuds, are generally considered to be an the GSR10 and GSR12 can
optimum solution. Otherwise, it’s common to serve as floor wedge monitors.

www.m-audio.com 17 www.m-audio.com 37
 NOTES CHAPTER 5:

Mixers
The mixer is your PA’s traffic director—
signals enter from various sources, and
are routed to one or more sets of outputs
that feed the speakers. Mixers may look
daunting, but they consist primarily of
multiple, identical channels: Learn one
channel, and you’ve learned the others too.

INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

The main mixer specification is the number of
inputs and outputs. For example, an 8-in, 2-out
mixer can accept eight different signal
sources, and combine them into two outputs
(also called buses). These two outputs can
provide stereo (left and right) channels. Fig. 16: Signals flow from the inputs through the
mixer channels, to the channel faders, then to the
panpots. At this point, the signals go to a master
You can think of the input signal path as a
stereo bus, which flows through the master faders,
vertical, downward flow into the mixer, and the
then to the outputs.
bus (output signal path) as a horizontal flow
from left to right out of the mixer (Fig. 16).
Typical mixers have anywhere from four to insert jack is usually a TRS (tip-ring-sleeve)
dozens of inputs. type, and requires a special breakout cable to
feed a signal processor’s input and output.
CHANNEL STRIPS
Each mixer channel has its own channel strip Preamplifier. Intended to amplify low-level
(also called an input module) for processing or signals (e.g., mic outputs), the preamp will
routing a signal before sending it to the output. offer large amounts of gain, as set by a gain
A basic channel strip (Fig. 17) includes some control. If the channel strip also offers a line
or all of the following: input, the gain control will be bypassed, or
cover a different, more appropriate gain range.
Input jack(s). This can be a low-impedance Preamps help bring all external signals to the
XLR mic input, a line-level input for stronger same approximate level prior to being mixed
signals, both types of inputs with a selector together with the faders (described later).
switch, a stereo signal input, or other, less
common options. Mixers often include Phantom power switch. When on, this
different inputs—a 16-input mixer might have sends +48V to an XLR mic input to power a
eight XLR mic inputs, and eight line-level condenser mic.
1/4” inputs.
Low-cut filter. Although not always included
Insert jack. This allows patching external in mixers, this reduces low frequencies to
gear, such as particular equalizers or minimize room rumble, mic “pops,” etc.
compressors (see Chapter 6) into the mixer Similarly, a high-cut filter reduces high
channel’s signal path. To save space, the frequencies to lessen sibilance and hiss.
38 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE 18 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
 Fig. 17: Here’s a typical channel strip,
from the M-Audio NRV10
mixer/interface. From top to bottom,
as pulling the fader all the way down. Use
mute switches to keep channels out of the mix NOTES
there’s an XLR mic input, a 1/4” line
until right before they’re needed.
input for balanced or unbalanced
lines (which you can use instead of Panpot. With stereo mixers, this places the
the XLR in), TRS insert jack, mic/line input signal anywhere in the stereo field—from
switch to tailor the gain control full left to full right.
characteristics to the chosen input,
preamp gain control, three EQ Fader. This sets the level of the channel in
controls for high/mid/low
relation to the other channels. It may be a
frequencies, two aux send controls
linear slider (Fig. 18), or a rotary control.
(one to a monitor out, one to the
onboard digital effects), pan control,
and level fader. Note the red clipping MIXER BUSES
indicator to the upper right of the Basic mixers have two output buses. More
level fader, along with a yellow light advanced models have several buses (called
to indicate when a channel is muted, send or auxiliary buses), and you can set up
as chosen by the Mute switch at the different mixes on these different buses
bottom of the channel strip. using send or aux level controls. These “pick
off” part of a channel strip’s signal, and send
Clipping indicator. This is it to a bus in the same way a fader regulates
usually an LED that lights if the level going to the master stereo output
the signal exceeds the (Fig. 19).
preamp’s available dynamic
range, which means you One common use for a mixed bus output is to
should turn down the set up a separate mix for singers. This is
preamp gain. Some inputs because if the singers can hear themselves
also have an “activity” LED coming from the main speakers, then that
that lights if there’s a signal sound is probably getting into their mics,
present (which verifies that which encourages feedback. But setting up
a signal is reaching the the mics behind the speakers to minimize
mixer channel). Another feedback makes it difficult for the singers to
variation combines both hear themselves, making it tough to stay on
functions into a bi-color pitch. As mentioned previously, one solution is
LED that glows green to to provide the singers with reference
indicate an activity, and red earphones. A separate mix can be set up
to indicate overload. specifically for the singer using an auxiliary
bus, perhaps with vocals and melodic
Equalizer. This is a type of instruments up loud, and drums turned down.
tone control; see Chapter 6. This aux bus output feeds a separate
headphone amp, which drives the reference
Send control. See the earphones. Thus the singers can hear
section on Mixer Buses. themselves without having the monitor signal
get into their mics.
Solo switch. Soloing a Please visit m-audio.com for complete performance specifications
channel mutes all other input Another bus application is to provide a master as well as detailed information regarding compatibility.
modules. This is useful for volume control for several individual channels.
hearing exactly what’s happening in a channel For example, suppose you’re mixing a church © 2010 Avid Technology, Inc. All rights reserved. Product features, specifications, system requirements and
without being distracted by the other channels. choir with multiple mics. You can send a signal availability are subject to change without notice. All prices are USMSRP for U.S. only and are subject to change
from each mic to a bus, turn down the mic without notice. Avid, M-Audio, Fast Track, Nova, Pro Tools, and Eleven are either trademarks or registered trademarks
of Avid Technology, Inc. All other trademarks contained herein are the property of their respective owners.
Mute switch. Muting a channel is the same channel faders, then return the bus output to a
www.m-audio.com 19 www.m-audio.com 39
Fig. 18: Linear faders are very easy to adjust, particularly because you can move more than one at a
time. These eight linear faders are part of the Avid 003 interface for Pro Tools recording software.

mixer input or send (aux) return input (Fig. 20) reference earphones, the bus master
to blend it back in with the main output. Use control would adjust the level going to the
the send controls to balance each mic reference earphones.
perfectly, then if you want to raise or lower the
entire choir, use the mixer input level or send Bus return controls. In the choir application
return control rather than adjusting each send mentioned above, you may not need to use
control individually. up a mixer input for the bus return, as there
may be some “return” inputs specifically for
Send controls usually have a pre/post switch to this purpose. These will be line level and
pick up the pre-channel fader signal (so the level generally not offer all the options of a typical
remains constant regardless of the fader setting) channel strip, but usually include a level
or post-channel fader, so that pulling down the control. They can also be used as extra
fader pulls down the send to the bus as well. inputs in a pinch.

Each mixer has its own way of sending signals Output meters. Most mixers have at least an
to buses. If space is tight and there are lots of output meter, and high-end mixers might
buses, a channel might have a send control include meters for individual channels. A
along with switches that route the send control typical meter will consist of 10 or more LEDs,
to a particular bus (or buses). and use different colors to differentiate among
ranges of levels (green for normal, yellow for
THE MASTER SECTION close to overload, and red for overload). Avoid
A mixer’s master section includes “global” letting the signal go into the red zone, as this
controls, such as: can lead to distortion.

Master output control. This varies the Headphone output. Most mixers have a
mixer’s overall output level. headphone jack with an associated level control
that’s independent of the main output. This
Send bus master output controls. While means you can turn down the output so the
not present on all mixers, these affect the audience doesn’t hear anything, yet listen to the
overall level of the bus they control. In the various channels on headphones to make sure
example of the singer listening through everything is working properly.
20 LIVE SOUND SURVIVAL GUIDE
Sound System Basics

~1~

Mixers
Consists of two main sections:
• Channel strip section

~ 67 ~
 Session Overview
• Sound Systems
– Audio Connectors & Cables
– Sound System Components
– System Connections
• Live Recording Options &
Connections
• Troubleshooting Tips

~2~

Mixers
Consists of two main sections:
• Channel strip section
• Master section

~ 68 ~
 Sound Applications
• Reinforce the sound of:
– Soloists
– Featured sections
– Electric or electronic instruments
– Entire group—typically large indoor
venues & outdoor concerts

~3~

Mixers
Channel Strip

~ 69 ~
 Sound Applications
• Reinforce the sound of:
– Soloists
– Featured sections
– Electric or electronic instruments
– Entire group—typically large indoor
venues & outdoor concerts
• Record rehearsals & performances

~4~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Effects & monitor send

~ 70 ~
 Sound Systems
• Basic function of a sound system is
to reinforce and amplify sound

• Goal is to achieve sufficient loudness

~5~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Effects & monitor send
• EQ (tone control)

~ 71 ~
 Sound Systems
Sound System –
• system of components
that blend, shape and
combine audio signals
• amplifies the audio
• converts it from
electrical voltages to
sound waves that we
can hear.
~6~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Effects & monitor send
• EQ (tone control)
• Trim (Pad): matching levels

~ 72 ~
 System Components
• Input Devices
– Microphones
– Electronic and electric instruments
– CD player or tape deck

~7~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Effects & monitor send
• EQ (tone control)
• Trim (Pad): matching levels
• Volume knob

~ 73 ~
 System Components
• Input Devices
– Microphones
– Electronic and electric instruments
– CD player or tape deck
• Mixer – shapes, blends & combines audio

~8~

Mixers
Channel Strip

~ 74 ~
 System Components
• Input Devices
– Microphones
– Electronic and electric instruments
– CD player or tape deck
• Mixer – shapes, blends & combines audio
• Effects – enhances, controls or modifies audio

~9~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): matching levels

~ 75 ~
 System Components
• Input Devices
– Microphones
– Electronic and electric instruments
– CD player or tape deck
• Mixer – shapes, blends & combines audio
• Effects – enhances, controls or modifies audio
• Amplifier – boosts (amplifies) audio signal

~ 10 ~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): matching levels
• Auxilary (Aux) sends:
– effects & monitors

~ 76 ~
 System Components
• Input Devices
– Microphones
– Electronic and electric instruments
– CD player or tape deck
• Mixer – shapes, blends & combines audio
• Effects – enhances, controls or modifies audio
• Amplifier – boosts (amplifies) audio signal
• Speakers – converts signal to sound waves
~ 11 ~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): matching levels
• Auxilary (Aux) sends:
– effects & monitors
• EQ (sweepable mids)

~ 77 ~
 Audio Connectors
• XLR or Cannon
– Microphones

~ 12 ~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): matching levels
• Auxilary (Aux) sends:
– effects & monitors
• EQ (sweepable mids)
• Pan (stereo placement)

~ 78 ~
 Audio Connectors
• XLR or Cannon
– Microphones

• 1/4-inch TS
– Electric & electronic
instruments

~ 13 ~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): matching levels
• Auxilary (Aux) sends:
– effects & monitors
• EQ (sweepable mids)
• Pan (stereo placement)
• Volume fader
~ 79 ~
 Audio Connectors
• XLR or Cannon
– Microphones

• 1/4-inch TS
– Electric & electronic
instruments

• RCA
– CD Player, Tape Deck
~ 14 ~

Mixers
Trim Control (Pad, Gain, Attenuation)
• Adjusts signal level going into channel strip
Signal Level
Synthesizer

Elec Guitar
Microphone
~ 80 ~
 Audio Cables
Shielded cable
• Metal braid around
conductor shields audio
signal from electrical &
RF interference

~ 15 ~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): adjusts signal level
going into channel strip
• LED overload indicator

~ 81 ~
 Audio Cables
Shielded cable
• Metal braid around
conductor shields audio
signal from electrical &
RF interference

Unshielded cable
• Amplifier output to
speaker input only

~ 16 ~

Mixers
Channel Strip
• Trim (Pad): adjusts signal level
going into channel strip
• LED overload indicator

• Volume fader: adjust volume

level going out of channel strip

~ 82 ~
 Audio Cables
Unbalanced
• Uses one conductor plus
a ground conductor—the shield. 25’ cable max.
– 1/4” TS, RCA connector

~ 17 ~

Mixers
Master Section

~ 83 ~
 Audio Cables
Unbalanced
• Uses one conductor plus
a ground conductor—the shield. 25’ cable max.
– 1/4” TS, RCA connector
Balanced
• Uses two conductors,
plus a ground conductor. The
two circuits “balance” each other.
– Any noise picked up by wires is canceled and
will disappear. Audio signal level is doubled.
– XLR connector ~ 18 ~

Mixers
Master Section
• Master volume fader

~ 84 ~
 Audio Connections
Direct Box
• Transforms high-impedance,
unbalanced instrument
outputs to low-impedance,
balanced inputs
• 1/4” TS connector to XLR
• Use for connections over 25’

~ 19 ~

Mixers
Master Section
• Master volume fader
• Subgroup volume faders

~ 85 ~
 Audio Connections
Multi-channel audio cable
• Snake (8 – 40 channels or more)

~ 20 ~

Mixers
Master Section
• Master volume fader
• Subgroup volume faders
• Master aux send and return
knobs for effects & monitors

~ 86 ~
 Microphone Basics
• Microphones are a transducer
• Basic purpose is to convert acoustical
energy (sound waves) to electrical
energy (voltages)

~ 21 ~

Mixers
Master Section
• Graphic EQ

~ 87 ~
 Microphone Basics

~ 22 ~

Mixers
Master Section
• Graphic EQ
• Built-in Digital Effects
– Reverb
– Delay

~ 88 ~
 Microphone Basics
Types of microphones
• The basic design of the microphone
component (element) used to capture
the sound

~ 23 ~

~ 89 ~
 Microphone Basics
Two common types of microphones:
• Dynamic
– Moving electromagnetic coil

~ 24 ~

Power Amplifier
• Mono & Stereo (two channel)

~ 90 ~
 Microphone Basics
Two common types of microphones:
• Dynamic
– Moving electromagnetic coil

• Condenser
– Two plates
– one stationary, one moving

~ 25 ~

Power Amplifier
• Mono & Stereo (two channel)
• Output power measured in watts
– 100 watts; 250 watts per channel

~ 91 ~
 Microphone Basics
Dynamic Microphones

~ 26 ~

Power Amplifier
• Mono & Stereo (two channel)
• Output power measured in watts
– 100 watts; 250 watts per channel
• To double the apparent volume level,
the power needs to increase by a
factor of ten.
– 100 watt amp
– 1,000 watt amp
~ 92 ~
 Microphone Basics
Dynamic Microphones
• Durable – good “jack-of-all-trades” mic

~ 27 ~

Speakers
• Speakers are a transducer

~ 93 ~
 Microphone Basics
Dynamic Microphones
• Durable – good “jack-of-all-trades” mic
• Typically handles cold, heat, and high humidity
better than condenser mics

~ 28 ~

Speakers
• Speakers are a transducer
• They convert electrical
energy (voltages) to
acoustical energy (sound
waves).

~ 94 ~
 Microphone Basics
Dynamic Microphones
• Durable – good “jack-of-all-trades” mic
• Typically handles cold, heat, and high humidity
better than condenser mics
• Can handle high volume levels without distortion

~ 29 ~

Speakers
• Speakers are a transducer
• They convert electrical
energy (voltages) to
acoustical energy (sound
waves).
• Purpose is to produce a
smooth, full range sound.

~ 95 ~
 Microphone Basics
Dynamic Microphones
• Durable – good “jack-of-all-trades” mic
• Typically handles cold, heat, and high humidity
better than condenser mics
• Can handle high volume levels without distortion
• Frequently used for miking bass (kick) drum,
snare drum, and guitar amps

~ 30 ~

Speakers
Speaker Components
• Horn or tweeter for highs

~ 96 ~
 Microphone Basics
Dynamic Microphones
• Durable – good “jack-of-all-trades” mic
• Typically handles cold, heat, and high humidity
better than condenser mics
• Can handle high volume levels without distortion
• Frequently used for miking bass (kick) drum,
snare drum, and guitar amps
• Overall ruggedness makes them a good choice
for hand-held close vocal use
~ 31 ~

Speakers
Speaker Components
• Horn or tweeter for highs
• Woofer for lows

~ 97 ~
 Microphone Basics

Dynamic Microphone
~ 32 ~

Speakers
Speaker Components
• Horn or tweeter for highs
• Woofer for lows
Two general types:
• Unpowered (passive)
– Requires power amplifier
or powered mixer

~ 98 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones

~ 33 ~

Speakers
Speaker Components
• Horn or tweeter for highs
• Woofer for lows
Two general types:
• Unpowered (passive)
– Requires power amplifier
or powered mixer
• Powered (Active)
– Built-in power amplifier
~ 99 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones
• Wider & smoother frequency response than
dynamic mics, especially high-end frequencies

~ 34 ~

System Connections
• Non-powered Mixer, Power Amplifier,
& Passive Speakers

SPEAKER CABLES

~ 100 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones
• Wider & smoother frequency response than
dynamic mics, especially high-end frequencies
• Very realistic, transparent sound

~ 35 ~

System Connections
• Non-powered Mixer with
Powered Speakers

SHIELDED AUDIO CABLES

SPEAKER CABLES

~ 101 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones
• Wider & smoother frequency response than
dynamic mics, especially high-end frequencies
• Very realistic, transparent sound
• Preferred choice for stereo recording or group
sound reinforcement

~ 36 ~

System Connections
• Powered Mixer with digital effects &
Passive Speakers

NON-SHIELDED SPEAKER
SPEAKER
CABLES
CABLES

~ 102 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones
• Wider & smoother frequency response than
dynamic mics, especially high-end frequencies
• Very realistic, transparent sound
• Preferred choice for stereo recording or group
sound reinforcement
• Great for miking cymbals, woodwind and string
instruments, and studio vocals

~ 37 ~

AC Power Connections
• 3-prong grounded extension cords
• Surge protection & power conditioning

~ 103 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones
• Wider & smoother frequency response than
dynamic mics, especially high-end frequencies
• Very realistic, transparent sound
• Preferred choice for stereo recording or group
sound reinforcement
• Great for miking cymbals, woodwind and string
instruments, and studio vocals
• More fragile & expensive than dynamic mics; use
extra care
~ 38 ~

Live Recording
Computer with audio interface and
digital audio recording software

~ 104 ~
 Microphone Basics
Condenser Microphones
• Require power source
– Batteries
– Phantom power from mixer

~ 39 ~

Live Recording
Dedicated hard disk recorder
– Boss BR-1180 or BR-1600

~ 105 ~
 Microphone Basics

Condenser Microphones

~ 40 ~

Live Recording
Connecting sound system mixer
outputs to a recorder

~ 106 ~
 Microphone Basics
Pickup (Polar) pattern:
• How a microphone “hears the sound”
• Directional response of a mic

~ 41 ~

Pre-flight Check List

Double-check all connections
before turning the power on to
any equipment.

~ 107 ~
 Microphone Basics
Two common pickup (polar) patterns:
• Omnidirectional
– Picks up in all directions
– a full 360º

~ 42 ~

Pre-flight Check List

Double-check all connections
before turning the power on to
any equipment.
Neatly dress all cables. Tape down
cables that cross walkways.

~ 108 ~
 Microphone Basics
Two common pickup (polar) patterns:
• Omnidirectional
– Picks up in all directions
– a full 360º

• Cardioid (unidirectional)
– Picks up primarily in front
– rejects sound from rear
~ 43 ~

Pre-flight Check List

Double-check all connections
before turning the power on to
any equipment.
Neatly dress all cables. Tape down
cables that cross walkways.
Make sure the mixer’s master volume
fader (or knob) is all the way down.

~ 109 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

~ 44 ~

Power-on Sequence
Start with the beginning of the audio
change and work towards the end.

~ 110 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

~ 45 ~

Power-on Sequence
Start with the beginning of the audio
change and work towards the end.
1. Electronic instruments, CD player…

~ 111 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

Tips to Avoid Feedback

~ 46 ~

Power-on Sequence
Start with the beginning of the audio
change and work towards the end.
1. Electronic instruments, CD player…
2. Effects processors

~ 112 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

Tips to Avoid Feedback

• Use cardioid mics

~ 47 ~

Power-on Sequence
Start with the beginning of the audio
change and work towards the end.
1. Electronic instruments, CD player…
2. Effects processors
3. Mixer

~ 113 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

Tips to Avoid Feedback

• Use cardioid mics
• Use less mics; mute unused mics

~ 48 ~

Power-on Sequence
Start with the beginning of the audio
change and work towards the end.
1. Electronic instruments, CD player…
2. Effects processors
3. Mixer
4. Amplifier or powered speakers

~ 114 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

Tips to Avoid Feedback

• Use cardioid mics
• Use less mics; mute unused mics
• Place speakers in front of mics

~ 49 ~

Power-off Sequence
Turn the mixer’s master volume fader
(or knob) all the way down.

~ 115 ~
 Microphone Basics
Feedback
• A sustained ringing sound that ranges from
a low rumble to a piercing howl or squeal

Tips to Avoid Feedback

• Use cardioid mics
• Use less mics; mute unused mics
• Place speakers in front of mics
• Aim mics away from speakers & vice-versa
~ 50 ~

Power-off Sequence
Turn the mixer’s master volume fader
(or knob) all the way down.
Start with the end of the audio change
and work towards the beginning.

~ 116 ~
 Mic Handling Tips
• Speak into a mic to check for sound. Never
blow into or tap the mic capsule.

~ 51 ~

Power-off Sequence
Turn the mixer’s master volume fader
(or knob) all the way down.
Start with the end of the audio change
and work towards the beginning.
1. Amplifier or powered speakers

~ 117 ~
 Mic Handling Tips
• Speak into a mic to check for sound. Never
blow into or tap the mic capsule.
• Attach cable to the mic before mounting it
on a stand. Wrap the cord around the mic
stand a few times.

~ 52 ~

Power-off Sequence
Turn the mixer’s master volume fader
(or knob) all the way down.
Start with the end of the audio change
and work towards the beginning.
1. Amplifier or powered speakers
2. Mixer

~ 118 ~
 Mic Handling Tips
• Speak into a mic to check for sound. Never
blow into or tap the mic capsule.
• Attach cable to the mic before mounting it
on a stand. Wrap the cord around the mic
stand a few times.
• Hold a mic by gripping it around its body,
rather than around its capsule.

~ 53 ~

Power-off Sequence
Turn the mixer’s master volume fader
(or knob) all the way down.
Start with the end of the audio change
and work towards the beginning.
1. Amplifier or powered speakers
2. Mixer
3. Effects processors

~ 119 ~
 Miking Ensembles
Stereo Mic Techniques
• Spaced Pair
– Pair of cardioid
condenser mics
– Smooth,
spacious sound
– Mic spacing
is important
~ 54 ~

Power-off Sequence
Turn the mixer’s master volume fader
(or knob) all the way down.
Start with the end of the audio change
and work towards the beginning.
1. Amplifier or powered speakers
2. Mixer
3. Effects processors
4. Electronic instruments, CD player…

~ 120 ~
 Miking Ensembles
Stereo Mic Techniques
• Coincident (X-Y)
– Good for small to medium size groups

~ 55 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first

~ 121 ~
 Miking Ensembles
Area Miking (Area Coverage)
• Use as few mics as possible
• “Less is more”

~ 56 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in

~ 122 ~
 Mixers
The main purpose of a mixer is to
blend, shape, and combine audio
signals.

~ 57 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on

~ 123 ~
 Mixers

~ 58 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on

~ 124 ~
 Mixers

ANALOG and DIGITAL

~ 59 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on
• Phantom power is turned on for condenser mics

~ 125 ~
 Mixers

~ 60 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on
• Phantom power is turned on for condenser mics
• Audio cables are plugged into the correct jacks

~ 126 ~
 Mixers
The main purpose of a mixer is to
blend, shape, and combine audio
signals.
Two main types of mixers:

~ 61 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on
• Phantom power is turned on for condenser mics
• Audio cables are plugged into the correct jacks
• Used correct type of cable

~ 127 ~
 Mixers
The main purpose of a mixer is to
blend, shape, and combine audio
signals.
Two main types of mixers:
• Unpowered
– Requires an external power amp

~ 62 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on
• Phantom power is turned on for condenser mics
• Audio cables are plugged into the correct jacks
• Used correct type of cable
• Cables are completely—all the way—plugged in

~ 128 ~
 Mixers
The main purpose of a mixer is to
blend, shape, and combine audio
signals.
Two main types of mixers:
• Unpowered
– Requires an external power amp
• Powered
– Contains built-in power amplifier
– Mono (single) or stereo (2 channel) amp
~ 63 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on
• Phantom power is turned on for condenser mics
• Audio cables are plugged into the correct jacks
• Used correct type of cable
• Cables are completely—all the way—plugged in
• Volume on instruments, mixer & amp is up
~ 129 ~
 Mixers
Consists of two main sections:

~ 64 ~

Troubleshooting 101
Always check the obvious first
• AC power cables are plugged in
• AC power strip is turned on
• All gear is turned on
• Phantom power is turned on for condenser mics
• Audio cables are plugged into the correct jacks
• Used correct type of cable
• Cables are completely—all the way—plugged in
• Volume on instruments, mixer & amp is up
• Carry spare parts, extra cables, duct tape
~ 130 ~
 Mixers
Consists of two main sections:
• Channel strip section

~ 65 ~
 Mixers
Consists of two main sections:
• Channel strip section

~ 66 ~