Name'. Rishika- U.

Section -A, Plant Life

Unit
1 Microseopie Studies CA)
INTRODUCTION
"Cell is the unit of life." Robert Hooke had first
the word CELL to describe the box-like compartments observed
cell in a thin slice of cork. He was the first to use
of structure and function. Rudolf Virchow composing the cork. Now, the cels are considered as unit
established
cells. Cells are totipotent i.e., have the ability to that., cells always arise from the division of pre-exisung
form a new complete organism.

Experiment No, A-1

AIM OF THE
EXPERIMENT:
To examine an onion peel under the microscope to study
various parts of the cell.
REQUIREMENTS:
Microscope, onion bulb, glass side,coverslip, petridish,watch glass, forceps, brush, needles, blade, safranine
stain, filter paper and glycerine.
PROCEDURE :
(a) Take a piece of onion and with the help of a forcep gently pull a thin, transparent peel
from its underside.
(b) Keep this peel in water in a petridish or watch glass.
(c) Adda few drops of safranine stain in the watch glass to stain the peel.
CELL WALL

CELL
MEMBRANE

-CYTOPLASM
NUCLEUS
VACUOLE

Flg. Structure of an Onlon Peel

Caution : Both över-staining and under-staining should be avoided.
(d) the
Cuthelp
the portion of the peel to aproper rectangular or square shape of appropriate size (2 to 3mm) with
of a blade and a needle. Place one such piece in a drop of water on a glass slide.
(e) Remove the excess of water or stain, if any, from the slide surrounding the peel with the help of a blotting
paper.
(0 Add a drop of glycerine on the slide over the peel and put the coverslip gently.
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB3MANUAL-9
MAN 13
 Note
should beCare
donemust be taken to vold the entry of ar bubbles uwhle plocing coverslp and the mounting
in the centre of the sllde.
(g) After placing thc
cooverslip press It a blt with needle to
(n) Examine the slicde under the mlcroscope. flrst under thespread the glycerine and peel property.
low power
() Draw rough sketches of some cells wlth as much detalls of Inslde cell andcontents
then under higncanpove,
as you see under the
microscope.
VoBSERVATIONS :
() There are a large number of cells ying slde by
slde with distinct cell walls.
(i) Adistinct red stained nucleus is
present in the side of the cell.
(iti) Vacuoles are present in the cell
(iu) Intercellular spaces are
cytoplasm.
absent.
() The cytoplasm is darkly stained on the inner
surfaceof the cell wall.
(ui) Cells are polygonal in shape and
compactly aranged.
TPRECAUTIONS :
() Slide should be clean.
(i)
Always use a brush to transfer the peel from watch glass to the slide.
(ii)
Material should never be allowed to dry.
(iv)
Keep the coverslip carefully to avoid the entry of air bubbles.
() Mounting of the material should be done in the centre of the slide.
(ui) Excess of water or safranine stain coming out of the sides of the coverslip should be removed with the
help of a filter paper.

Q.1. What is a cell?

=VNANoCL=
Ans. Cell is the structural and functional unit of all life forms. It has two main parts : cytoplasm and
nucleus.
Q.2. what is the distinct feature of plant cells?
Ans. Plant cells have årigid cellwall which lies outside the plasma membrane.
Q.3. Why is glycerine used for mounting purpose?
Ans. It prevents the drying up of the cells. Secondly, it is transparent and odouress.
Q.4. What is the shape of onion peel cells ?
Ans. Onion peel cells are hexagonal in shape having cell walls.
Q.5. Why is staining done prior to mounting ?
Ane The cell organelles take up stain and become colOured and hence they become
visible undor ho
microscope.
0.6. Name three unicellular organisms.
Ans. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Acetabularia.
14 NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY
LAB MANUAL-9
 Morphologieal Study
Unit Of a CrossPollinated
2 Flowerin: Pilant
+INTRODUCTION
Ost of the plants we observe around us are calledlouering nlants as they produce flowers ana a
their reproduction. Any lowering taken from th
garden) or wild (uncultivated plant from
as picked ornamental (likeinPetunia/Holluhock/Sunflower/Rose
the roadside the neighbourhood) would consist of two parts :-
Shoot system above the ground and a root system under the
ground.
Ihe root system is underground, non-qreen and fixes the plant in the soil and absorbs water and mineral
Salts trom it. Itis extensively branched.The shoot system above around has erect part,a stem which is usually
green in colour. Depending upon its nature, the plant may be a herb, (soft and pliable stem) or a shrub(hara
Woody stem branches may arise from near the base) or trees-(havinga thick-woody main stem--trunk). 1he
Stem may be branched or unbranched. It bears qreen expanded parts called leaves at swollen points called
nodes. The part of the stem between two nodes is called internode.There are smalloutgrowths called buds
at the tip of the plant (terminal bud) or in the axilof the leaf (axillary bud). The flowering plants usualy bear
colourful structures called flowers at the tip of the shoot either singly or in groups called inflorescence.
Besides these, the stem may also bear small structures called fruits which contain seeds for reproduction. The
íruits and seeds develop from the female part of the lower after pollination and fertilisation. The stem, branches
and leaves are the vegetative parts whereas flowers fruits and seeds are the reproductive parts.
Experí ment No. A-2.1
AIM OF THEEXPERIMENT :
To become familiar with the parts of a floweringplant-Hibiscus.
KEQUIREMENTS :
Hibiscus plant, growing in school lawn, towel, hand lens, brush etc.
PROCEDURE :
(a) Dua out the plant along with roots from the soil and wash it gently under tap water to remove the soil.
(b) Study its various parts.Use hand lens to study smaller parts. Note down the various parts and make a
labelled diagram on your notebook.
Miiblscus rosa-slnensls (SHOE FLOWER)
1. The plant is a perennial ornamentalshrub.
2. It is cultivated for its beautiful lowers in the lawns and gardens.
3 The plant consists of underground non-green part-Tap root system and the above ground acnal
part-Shoot system.
4 Therc is a distinct thick persistent main root-Primary root with extensively branched lateral Secondnrv
roots and their branches Tertiary roots. The ultimate branches are called rootlets which beat rool.
hairs (or absoption of water and minerals. The rools help in fixation of a plant in the soi.
16| NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB NANUAL-9
 5. The stem is erect, cylindrical, woody, solid and branched. ILOW
The branches are green, herbaceous. Terminally, t APICAL IU)
possesses apical bud.
STWAA
6 Aangement of leaves 0s alternate. A single leal s proscnt IAAI! IA
in the area of node. It bears axillary bud In its axil. TUnE:

7. Distinct nodes and internodes are present on the stem. FLOWER PEOIC:I

The leaves bear two small, green, free lateral stipulc8, al

the base.
LAIAIIA
9. Leaves have reticulate venation i.e., veinlets are fuscd AXILLANY DUO
to fom a network.
MIDRID
10. The margin of leaves have upward directed teeth i.e., VEINS. INTCRNODI:
serate. 3TrM
DRANCH ---
11, The plant has long hairy pedicillate, showy, large and
-MAIN ROOT
beautifully coloured (red) flowers.
12. Flowers are solitary and axillary i.e., a single flower is zLATCNAL. NOOTS
present in the axil of a leaf.

Fig. Plant body of HIblecu

Kxperiment No,.A-2,2
AM OF THE EXPERIMENT :
To study the floral parts of a flower.
BÈQUIREMENTS :
Hibiscus flower/Petunia flower, hand lens, blade, needles, glass slides and forceps.
RÒCEDURE:
Examine the specimen of the flower or the inflorescence provided very carefully with the hand lens.
Draw labelled diagrams of the entire flower. Then cut its vertical section with the help of the blade and
draw the diagram of the cut flower. Label the parts.
In another specimen of the same flower, with the help of the forceps pull out each whorl starting from
ge outside. Draw each whorl separately and record your observations as per the following key :
Inflorescence : Is the inflorescence solitary-terminal or axillary ? Name the types of inflorescence
racemnose or Cymose.
Flower: Is the flower bracteate or ebracteate, pedicellate or sessile; complete or incomplete; unisCXual
or bisexual; regular or irregular; hypogynous or epigynous; and nature of bracts or bracleoles if present;
shape of the flower because of the shape of the corolla,colou.
Calyx : Number of sepals or lobes, polysepalous or gamosepalous, shape ifsepals fused.
Corolla :Number of petals; polypetalous or gamopetalous, shape of corolla if fused.
Shape : Free corolla-cruciform, caryophyllaceous, rosaceous, papilionaceous elc. and colour. (When
there is not much difference between the sepals and petals, the term perianth is used, sepaloid or pelaloid :
polyphylous or gamophylous), Fused corolla- Tubular, funnel shaped, urn shaped, ligulale, bilabiate clc.
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9
|17
 (monoadelphous or diadelp-
Androecium : Number of stamens, free or united. If united, adelphous
hous), syngenesious or epipetalous or epiphyllous.
Gynoecium : Number of carpels, syncarpous (hused) or anocarpous (free) ovary supenor o
number of chambers or loculi, nature of placentation numbhor of oulos in each loculus of the ovaiy.
Style :Long or short, Free or fused.
Stigma : Distinct-simple, lobed or branched and state their number, hairy etc.

IExperiment No. A-2.3

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT :
Tostudy cross-pollinated flower and identify their various parts (Shoe flower/China rose).
A THEORY :
The transference of pollen grains from the anthers to the stiama is called Pollination. It is of two types:
X(a) Self-pollination : Transference of pollen qrains from the anther to the stigma of same bisexual
flower. e.g., pea, balsam, pansy, wheat, rice etc.
(6) Cross-pollination : Transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower of
anbther plant of same species. e.g., Petunia, rose, hibiscus, sunflower etc.
Cross-pollination mostiy occurs in unisexual flowers in dioecious plants. But a large number of
examples are available where inspite of bisexuality, plants prefer cross-polination due to maturation of male
sex-organs (stamen) and female sex organs (carpel) at different times. The pollen grains need some abiotic or
bioic agent such as wind, water, insects, birds or animals to bring about pollination. The most common
agents are the wind and insects.
KEQUIREMENTS:
Shoe flower, forceps, needles, razor, slide, microscope and hand lens.
. K Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (CHINA ROSE OR SHOE FLOWER)
Inflorescence : Solitary axillary.
Flower :Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, perfect or bisexual, regular, actinomorphic, hypogynous and
Scarlet red.
Epicalyx:6-9 fused at their base, green, persistent.
Calyx :5, gamosepalous, bell-like, green hairy, inferior.
Corolla :5, polypetalous, twisted, striped, mucilaginous at base, scarlet red, inferior.
Androecium : Indefinite, monoadelphous, filaments are fused to fom a staminal tube around the stue
epipetalous,monothecous anthers at the free ends of flaments, anther kidney shaped, inferior.
Gynoecium :Pentacarpellary, syncarpous, pentalocular, two ovules in each chamber, placentation
axile, stules, single divided in to five red hairy branches, each witha scarlet red, knobbed stiama

EF:. 1.Epi6.9), Ks, CG Aray Gis)

18 NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB
MANUAL-9
 The structure
/Mechanism of Polinatlon : In Hibiscus, the pollination is by insect i.e., entomophily.adaptations
It has following tor
of the flower is suited to the pollination by bees, wasps and butterflies.
pollination by insects.
STIGMATIC LOBES

CAPITATE STIGMAe ANTISEPALOUS

TOOTH CALYX
STIGMA MONOTHECOUS STAMENS
ANTHERS
STAMINAL TUBE ANTHERS EPICALYX
STAMINAL PETALS ANTHER
COROLLA TUBE
STAMINAL TUBE
STYLE
HAIA -FUSION BETWEEN FILAMENT
CALYX COROLLA WA-STIGMATIC LOBES
HAIRY. MONOTHECOUS
EPICALYX AND ANDROECIUM ANTHER
HAIRY PEDICEL B
JOINT
-STYLE
OVARY WALL
LEAF
E

OVULE

OVARY
THALAMUS FLOCULE
A G

Fig. HIblscus rosa-sinensis (Shoe flower). A. Part of a flowering branch; B. V.S. Flower ; C, Floral dlagram.
D. Separated Calyx and Corolla ; E. Androeclum; F. Gynoeclum; G T.S. Ovary.

(i) The flowers are large and showy present above the foliage.
(ii) The flowers are brightly scarlet red coloured.
(ii) Petals are large, conspicous and scarlet red in colour.
(iv) Flowers have honey or nectar glands at the base of petals.
(u) Pollen grains are heavy, spiny and surrounded by yellow sticky substance called pollenkit.
T'PROCEDURE ÒF POLLINATION :
Observe the enüre flower (after studying its detailed study as in this experiment).
In shoe flower the large,showy scarlet red petals, long scarlet red staminal tube, with distinct knobbed
stigmas attracts the insect. Theinsect sits on exposed stigmas and then moves to the petals. As the insect moves
towards the interior of the flowerin search of nectar, the pollen gets transfered to the body of the visiting insect.
If the insect has already visited a flower, some of the pollen grains sticking to its body get transferred to the
stigmas, thus bringing about cross-pollinàtion. When this insect visits another flower after this, it will cay away
pollen grains of this flower to the new flower toaffect cross-pollination.
Thus, large size insects such as bees,visit theflower in search of nectar and cary out pollination.

NOVA ICSE BIOLOGYLAB MANUAL-9 19

 Unit, Seed Germinmation

INTRODUCTION
On polination and fertilization, the ovaru matures into a fruit and the
COntain one or two coverings called Seed-coats andan embrvo. ovule ripens into a seed. Seeas
Theembryo consists of one or tWO COtyie
os (seed leaves) and embryo axis i.e., a plumule, a radicle. Theseed remains
Water, OXygen and suitable tenmperature to germinate and arow, The dormant (inactive) tillit receives
embryo into a seedling or young plant is called sprouting of a seed and growth o e
Germination.
xperiment No. A-s
VÁIM OF THE
EXPERIMENT:
To study the structure of germinatingseeds.
KEQUIREMENTS :
Bean seed, Maize seed, pair of forceps, razor, needles, a blade and hand lens.
PROCEDURE :
Soak a few of each type of seeds, overnight. Remove the outer seed-coat by using forceps. Place the
embryo under dissecting microscope to study the various parts.
OBSERVATIONS AND COMMENTS :
1. BEAN SEED EMBRYONAL AXIS
Examine the external structure of the seed. PLUMULE
TESTA
HILUM
1. Bean seed is kidney-shaped with HILUM
MICAOPYLE
LRADICLE
convexity on one side and slightly MICROPYLE
concave on other side. COTYLEDON
2. It has a whitish or brown colour and
EXTERNAL VIEW C
smooth surface.
PLUMULE INTERNAL VIEW AFTER
3. On the concave side is a whitish REMOVING SEED COAT
elongated oval scar called hilum, EPICOTYL ANDONE COTYLEDON
the point of attachment to the stalk
of seed. Near the hilum is present a HYPOCOTYL
RADICLE
minute pore called micropyle.
4. A small bulge is found above the -COTYLEDON
D
micropyle. It indicates the position
of underlying radicle. INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Flg. Structure of bean seed
22 NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9:
 5. Ashort ridge lies on the other side of hilum--Raphe.
6. The outer seed coat is thick, tough, whitish or brownish called tosta and the inner one is thin,
whitish and known as tegmen.
7. Inside seed coats, is present the embryo. Embryo has a curved embryo axis and two food
laden, massive fleshy structures called cotyledons.
between the
8. Embryo axis at micropylar end bears a rod-shaped radicle while the other end
two cotyledons has plumule. Plumule is covered by two small folded leaves.
9. The two cotyledons are attached to the embryo axis in between radicle and plumule at coty
kidney-shaped. They store
ledonary node (mesocotyl). The cotyledons are large, white and
food,
and area
10. The area of embryo axis between plumule and cotyledonary node is called eplcotyl
of embryo axis between cotyledonary node and radicle is known as hypocotyl.
Al. Plumule grows into shoot system and the radicle grows into róot system of the plant.
MAIZE GRAIN
are fused
L. Maize grain is a single-seeded fruit. The fruit wall (pericarp) and the seed coat (testa)
together.
2. The maize grain may be whitish, yellow, violet or red in colour.
3. It has a smooth and shining surface.
4. Itis conical and flattened. The broader end is roundish.
lowards the broader end the upper flat surface bears a small papilla which represents the
J. remains of the style. On the same side a deltoid depressed whitish area is present with central
ridge which indicates the position of underlying embryo axis.
wall or
6. The outer hard covering is formed by the fusion of the seed coat or testa and the fruit
pericarp. PAPILLA
(REMAINS OF STYLE) FUSED PERICARP
AND TESTA
PAPILLA
-(REMAINSOF STYLE)
-ALEURONE LAYER
-STORAGE REGION ENDOSPERM

EPITHELIAL LAYER
-SCUTELLUM
-DEPRESSED -COLEOPTILE
AREA -PLUMULE
-RIDGE EMBRYO AXIS
POSITION O -HADICLE
UNDERLYING COLEORHIZA
EMBRYO

Fla. Structure of Malze grain. A. external structure. B. L.S. or V.S. graln

7. Internally the grain has two structures, endosperm and embryo.
8. The endosperm occupies most of the interior of the grain on the broader sides, It consists of
outer horny aleurone layer and mealy storage part. It produces enzymes during the process
of grain germination.
9. The embryo occurs in the pointed part of the grain. It consists of an embryo axis containing a
radicle, a plumule and a single lateral cotyledon.
10. The radicle lies at pointed end and has two protective sheaths, inner root cap and outer
coleorhiza.
11. The plumule lies towards the broader side end. It bears a few rudimentary leaves and aconical
protective sheath known as coleoptile.
23
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGYtAB MANOAt-9
La alled Scutellu n.
I2. Jhe u ingk alyladon of mage
(3.Jhe outamott
menocetyleden ow and andwpaut.
 Section -B. Animal Life
Unit
4 Mietoseopie Studies (B)
INTRODUCTION
"Cellis the unit of life". Robert Hooke had first observed cell in a thin slice of cork. He was
the word CELL to describe the units the first to use
composing the cork.
Experiment No, B-l
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT :
To examine a human cheek cell under the microscope to 'study
various parts of the cell.
REQUIREMENTS:
Microscope, clean tooth pick, slides, coverslip, needles, brush, methylene blue stain, watch glass and filter
paper.
PROCEDURE :
(a) Wash off food particles from your mouth by bhushing and CELL
MEMBRANE
rinsing with clean water.
(b) With the help of a clean tooth pick or a clean slide, gently
NUCLEUS
scrap the inner side of the cheek to get some epithelial
cells.
(c) Put the scrappings on a clean slide and spread it with a CYTOPLASM
needle. Add a drop of saline water and a drop of methyl
ene blue.
(d) After two minutes, remove the stain and add a drop of Flg. Cheek Epithelal Cells (Squamous Epithejlum)
glycerine on the slide.
e) Put the coverslip gently to avoid the entry of air bubbles.
) Press it with a needle to make the cells spread uniformly under the coverslip.
(g) Examine the slide under the microscope, first at lower resolution and thern at higher resolution of microscope.
(h) Draw rough sketches of soine cells with as much detail of inside cell contents as you can see under the
microscope.
ÓBSERVATIONS:
(i) Large number of flat, polygonal and iregular-shaped cells can be seen with a thin cell membrane.
(i) A prominent blue coloured nucleus is present in the centre of each cell. It is stained dark blue.
(ii) Cytoplasm gives a granular appearance.
(iu) Absence of cell wall, central vacuole and chloroplasts characteristic of plant cels.

NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9 |25

 Unit,
/IáenGietion
Animai Speeiments
INTRODUCTION,
study
Animals
of
are the
eukaryotic organisms,
animals areanimals show great diversity in theirmay be unicellular (protozoa) or multicellular (metazoa). The
habit, hatbitat, structures. functions and reproduction. Alf
heterotrophs which ingest food except some parasitic forms (absorptive). e.g.. round worms.
AIM OF THE /Experiment No. B-3
EXPERIMENT
To examine and
identify
:

specimens belonging to different groups of

PORIFERA-The: Sponges
Genéral Characteristics animals.
1. They are mostly found in the sea.
2. Thevare
3. All anintalssimplest first multicellular animals.
have numerous pores called ostia,
OSCULUM OSCULAR
FRINGE
4. Water goes out through which water enters.
5. Their body is through a single opening called osculum on the top.
6. They have supported by a skeleton of fine spicules. OSTIA
cellular level of organisation.
7. They are attached
8. They are tò_ubstratum.
9. The shapediploblastic.
is
ZOOIDSs
variable--Vaseike,
10. Asexual reproduction takes cylindrical, cup-shaped, spherical.
placeby
11. Ostia lead into a budding, regeneration.
Examples :Sycon, cavity--Spongocoel.
Euspongia, Spongila etc. write BASE OR
STOLON
Zycon :
1. Found in the shallow water of the
sea, attached to rocks.
Flg.Sycon (Scypha)
2. Colonial sponge
individuals joined at the base, an individual is slender
3. Each individual like part has
many ostia and one exhalent pore called vase-like structure.
4. Body wall has flask-shaped cells called osculum.
Current to come in. choanocytes which are responsible for continous water
5. Reproduction by asexual and sexual methods.
PHYLUM COELENTERATA (Animals with stinging cells)
General Characteristicsx
1. All are aquatic marine colonial forms except
2. Multicellular, iptobtasttc, Todiaty syaRetrtcalHydraafrostr water form.
3. They have a centralLbedy cavity called
animals.
30
coelenteron or entron.
NOVAICSE BIOLOGYLAB MNM
 which are supplled wlth speclal
4. They have tentaclesnematoblnsts, SAIL ORCREST
atinging cellh called be cylindrical -PNEUMATOPHORE
the animals may
5, The shape ofumbrella-lke
(polypold) or (medusold). GONOZOOIDS

sexual.
6. Reproductlon Is ndçxual or of more than one type of
SMALLER
DACTYLOZOOIDs
7. Polymorphlsm-Psence
Indlviduals In the coloy. GASTROZOOIDS
organisntion.
8. Thoy have tlssue-level of LARGER
DACTYLOZOOIDS
Examples :
(portugese-man-of
Hydra, Aurella (jelly fish), Physalla TENTACLES HAVING
war Corals llke Tublpora etc. NEMATOCYSTS

Physalla (The Portuguese man of war) :

1, It ts found In thesca.
2. It is a polymorphlc colony of zoolds (Individual
member) with an alr-float to help the colony to float In
water. It shows dlvision of labour. Some zooids catch
reproductive. Fig. Physalla
the food other are nutritive and a few are
3. It has longtontacles with stinging cells.
4. It is carnlvorous. -ScOLEX
5,, It reproduces both asexually and sexually. -NECK
3FHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES-(The flat worms)
Gencral Characteristics: bYOUNG PROGLOTTIDS
whlch afe mostly
1, Thls group conslsts of flat worms
pargsltes. Few ara free living.
symmetrical.
2. They dre triploblastic and bilateraly attachment
3. The bodymay havecartain struetures for
to the hostg., Taenla soltám (suckers), Planarla.
4. Almost all aystems aro absent because of their parasitic STROBIL
mode of lifeexceptfeproductlve system which is very
well developad.
may
5. They uodally have complieated life historles which
Ipvolve more than one host.
8. They have orgnn-level of organisation. MATURE PROGLOT
TIDS
Examples : Taenla sollum, Planarla.
Taenla sollum (The Pork-tapeworm) : Fig.Tapoworm (Taenia solium)
1. Thls Is a paraslte in the small Intostine of man and
Its larva lnfests the plg. TWO ROSTELLUM
2. The body conslsts of hend, nock and stroblla which AQWS
has about 900 sagments. ( PROGLOTTIDS) OF HOOKS
3. Every segment of stroblla is hermaphroditlc-having
both male and female reproductive organs. SUCKER
NECK
YOUNG
4. Head has hooks and suckors for attachment. PROGLOTTIDS
5. The worm.has two hosts-man and pig and part of lilfe Flg.Hoad of Taenla sollum
hlstory ls apent In ench host.
NOVAICBE DIOLOQYLAB MANUAL:0
 PROSTOMIUM
PROSTOMUM
MOUTH
PHYLUM ANNELIDA-(The segmented animals) EYES
ANTERIOR
Gencral Characteristics: SUCKER
1. Mostly free living worms with elongated body VELUM
showing metameric segmentation. MALE
2. They àre bilaterally symmetrical and have a true GENITAL
-10
PORE
coelom 10
FEMALE
12
GENITAL PORE
3. Locomotion is by setae, suckers or parapodia. - 13
14

4. Respiration\is through general body surface 14

(cutaneous) in most of them and by glls in some 16

-SEGMENTAL
tube dwellers. 17
RECEPTOR 17

-10
ORGANS
5. Most of them àre hermaphrodites and 10
- 19

development is direct. 20
17th -21
20

6. They have organ-system level of organisation. NEPHRIDIOPORE

7. The first segment is periostedm, with an out growth -ANUS
Prostomium. -POSTERIOR SUCKER
(B)
(A)
8. Haemoglobin present in blood-plasma. Fig. Hirudinarla granulosa (A.
Dorsal View ;
Examples : Earthworm, Leech, Nereis. B. Ventral Vlew)
Hirudinarla granulosa (Leech) :
1. It is found in paddy fields, freshwater ponds, swamps etc.
or human beings when they enter such
Z. It is Ectoparasite-sucking blood of frogs, fishes, cattle
water bodies.
green and ventral side brown in
3. It has dorso-ventrally flattened body with dorsal side dark
colour.
posterior ends. Anterior sucker has a
4. There are two suckers-one each at the anterior and
triradiate mouth.
rings or annuli.
5. Body has 33 seginents and each segment is further divided into
6. Leeches are hermaphrodites.
7. It feeds on blood-Sanguivorous.
8. There are present five pairs of eyes on the dorsal surface. Seventeen pairs of Nephridiopores are
22.
present on ventral side of each segment from 6 to
PHYLUM ASCHELMINTHES OR NEMATHELMINTHES (Round worms)
features :
They are round worms and'¡re characterized by the following
1. Thev are found in all types of habitat i.e., in freshwater, sea water, soil and many are
endoparasites of animals \ncluding man and plants.
2. They are bilaterally symmètrical, unsegmented and cylindrical in shape.
organisation.
3. They are triploblastic and hàye organ system level of
4. They are pseudocoelomate i.e.) bodycavity is not lined by peritoneum,
anus.
5. Alimentary canal is complete i.e., opens at one end as mouth and at the other end as
6. In parasitic forms respiration is anarobic but in free living forms it is aerobic and exchange of
gases takes place through the general body surface.
7. Excretion is brought about by the specialgland cells or intracellular canals or both,
8. Animals are unisexual, sexes are separate and exhibit sexual dimorphism. Fertilization is
internal.
9. They are mostly parasitic but some live free in the soil.
32 NOVAICSEBIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9
 Examples : Parasitic forms : Ascaris, Dracunculus (Guinea worm), Enterobius (Pin won) and
Ancylostoma (Hookwom) presert in humans, Wuchereriabancrofti (filarial worm) present in Iympn vesses
man. Trichinella spiralis (Trichina worm) present in pigs and rats, Eelworm present in potato plants.
Ascaris lumbricoldes (Round worm): TRIRADIATE
1. It is elongated, cylindrical yellowish-brown
endoparasite of small intestine of human beings, EXCAETORÝ
POAE
commonin children. LATERAL
2. Body has four longitudinal streaks. LINE
3. The dorsal and ventral side are pure white, while the FEMALE
GONOPORE OR
two lateral lines are thicker and brown in colour. VULVA
4. The females are larger and stouter than males CLOACAL
and measure about 20-30 cm in length whereas males APERTURE
reach to about 15-20cm in length.
5. Tail of male iscurved while that of female is straight.
6. Mouth is having 3 distinct lips. CURVED TAIL PENIAL
SETAE
7. Excretory pore lies near the anterior end and the MALE
female genital opening lies near the middle, both ANUS
TAIL
on the mid-ventral line. FEMALE
Fig. Round worms (Ascaris)
/6. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA-(The animals with jointed feet)
General Characteristics :
1. They have 2or 3 pairs of jointed legs.
2. The body is segmented externally. There is distinct head.
3. Endocrine glands secrete pheromones trail indicator and sex attractants.
4. The body is coverad with an exoskeleton of chitin.
5. The body is divided Sptohead, thorax and abdomen or cephalothorax and abdomen.
6. They have a haemocoel and circulatory system is open. (No vessels, presence of sinuses)
7. They show sexual dimophism. Fertilization is internal.
8. Compound-eyes.
Examples : Cockroach, prawn, spider, crab, scorpion. HEAD COMPOUND EYE
PROTHORAX
FIRST -MESO THORAX
ABDOMINAL CEPHALOTHORAX WALKING,
SEGMENTS ROSTRUM LEG META-THORAX
FORE
WING
ANTENNA

SECOND
WALKING/
LEG

JOINTED APPENDAGES
TELSON UROPODS
THIRD ANAL HIND WING
WALKING CERCUS
Flg. Prawn (Palaemon) LEG ANAL STYLE
Flg. Cockroach (Periplanata americana)
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9 33
 1. It is
2. found in rivers and is
Body is divided into omnivorous.and the
cephalothorax
3. carapace. abdomen and cephalothorax is covered by unjointed
Abdomen
4. A pair of
is six
jointed and bears aconicial telson at its
appendages
and balancing etc.
arise from
ventrolateral margin of eachend.
last six form the There are 19 segments of these-first five in segrnent, meant for feeding,
the head, next eight form the swimming
J. lt has a pair of abdomen. thorax and
6. They
respire bycompound eyes borne on movable two jointed stalks.
7. gills.
Presenceareof
S Prawns sexualdimorphism.muscles
used as food and their
are considered to be a delicacy.
6FHYLUM-MOLLUSCA
Molluscs soft-bodied(Soft
are -bodied animcharacterized
animals
ney are mostly marine Qr
als) and are by the following
2. The body of molluscs is freshwater dwelling species, but few are teatures
terrestrial in habitat.
3. divisible
The head bears mnouth, eves and
into head, visceral mass and
tentacles, and visceral mass foot.
dlandular fold of the body wall called encloses
+. A hick muscular, vascular and body organs.
body. mantle covers almost the entire
5. Ahard calcareous shell is secreted by the mantle
6. Body cavity is full of blood and is calld which may be external or intermal.
I. Respiration takes place through haemocoel.
mantle or even lungs (pulmonarygills\called
sac).
ctenidia, but may also occur through body surtace,
8. Excretion takes place through sac-like
kidneys.
9. Nervous system consists of 34 pairs of gangla¡ (group of nerve cells),
10, Reproduction is sexual. Sexes are separate.
connectives and commissures.
Bkamples : Unio (freshwater mussel), Sepia (cuttlefish), Pila (snal),Octopus (devilfish), Loligo (squid).
Unio (Fresh Water Mussel):
UMBO
1. It is found in rivers, lakes and ponds. HINGE LIGAMENT
2. It is enclosed in abivalvate shell, colour
is greyish-green or dark grey. EXHALENT LINES OF
SIPHON
3. Shell has a ridge called umbo. Concentric GROWTH
lines, the lines of growth, are present on SIPHON
INHALENTS -SHELL
the shell.
4. Mantle forns a cavity with the visceral -FOOT
organs. Thiscavity is connected with the
exhalent and inhalent siphons.
Flg. Unio
5. Water enters the body through inhalent siphon
and leaves the body through exhalent siphon. It is omnivorousfeeding microscopic organisms.
mouth is present in mantle
6. Two pairs of large, oval labial palps (lips) and a wide transverse
cavity.
visceral hump of mantle cavity.
7. All the main organs like alimentary canal etc. are present in
8. Respiration is by gills or ctenidia.
9. Foot is laterally compressed large, extensible muscular organ and helps in locomotion. tas

NOVAICSE DIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9

34
 1.
PHYUM-ECHINODERMATA (Spiny-skinned animals)
Echinoderms are spiny-skinncd animals and are
1.They are cxclusively maring, may be free characterized by the following leatures :
2.Body is cither star-shaped, cindrical, living or sedentary.
They are triploblastic and radially globular, flower-like or cucumber-like.
3.
Spines are often present on the bdy symmetrical.
4.
surface, hence, the name echinoderrnata.
5. Echinodens have
6. Respiration and tube-fect for lotomotion.
excretion
7. They possess a special
take place thyough general body
surface.
S. They reproduce by sexual water-vascular_ystem for the pupose of locomotion and
circulation.
Fertilization is extemal. methods onld Sexes are separate but there is no sexual dimorphism.
Examples : Asterias (starfish), Holothuria (sea cucumber),
Ophigthrix (britle star), Neometra (feather star)
Antendon (sea lily), Echinus (seaurchin).
Asterias (Star fish) :
1. It is found in
rocky sea floor.
2. lt is
3.
carnivorous.
Body is thick star-shaped with
4. variable colours like brown, yellow etc.
Body is divisible into a central disc
and
5. Arms are simple extensions of the central tapering five arms.
6. It has great power of disc, sharply demarcated.
regeneration and shows autotomy.
MARGINAL
SPINES

DENTRAL DISC. AMBULACRAL GROOVE

-MADREPORITE
MOUTH

-TUBE FEET
ANUS

ARMS

Flg. Aboral surtace of star fish

Flg. Oral surface of star fish
7, Oral and aboral surfaces are distinct. A distinct flat circular area,
aboral surface. madreporite is present on the
8. Mouth is five sided. It'seach angle extends
9. radially into a narrow groove, the
Each ambulacral groove
possesses two rows of tubular ambulacral groove.
locomotion. projections called tube feet, meant for
10. Anus is situated on one side of the
aboral surface.
11. Respiration and excretion is by
dermal branchiae and locomotion is by tube feet,
grooves. present in ambulacral
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9
|35
8 Fhylum- Chordata (Vertebrata)
The main characteristics of Chordates are :
1. Presence ona notochord, a rod like structure, present in the mid dorsal axis of the body. Except in
few primitive forms in which the notochord persists throughout life, in all others it is replaced by a
backbone or vèrtebral column.
Allvertebrates induding man, have a notochord in embryoníc life.
2. Presence of dorsal hollow nervous system.
3. Presence of tail in
moshchordates.
4. Presence of two pairs of lirgbs.
O. Biood is red due to the presençe of haemoglobin in erythrocytes (RBCs).
6. Reproduction takes place by sexual method.
7. Vertebral column forms the malin ais of their internal skeleton, which may be of bones or cartilages.
Phylum Chordata is divided into five classes. These are as follows :
1. Class Pisces
2. Class Amphibia
3. Class Reptilia
4. Class Aves
5. Cláss Mammalia
.VClass Pisces
(i) Adapted to aquatic life and include al fishes.
(ii) Heart is two chambered.
(ii) Respiration through gills.
(iu) Cold blooded or poikilothermal (i.e., their body temperature fluctuates according to the
temperature of the environment.)
(u) Body covered with scales.
(ui) They have fins for locomotion. Limbs are absent.
Fishes are of two main types : DORSALFIN
NASAL EYE
(a) Cartilagenous fishes : APERTrRE
(i) Skeleton made up of cartilage.
CAUDAL FIN
(i)Mouth present on ventral side. MOUTH
GILL vENTRAL FIN
(iüi) Gills are not covered by operculum. CLEFTS
Fig. Scoliodon (Dog fish)
Examples : Scoliodon (Dogfish), Sting ray, Electric ray (Torpedo).
(b) Bony fishes : OPERCULUM DORSAL FIN
SCALES
(i)Skeleton made up of bones. EYE

(ii) Mouth is terminal or subterminal.

(ii) Gills are covered with operculum.
MOUTH

PECTORAL FIN PELIC FN CAUDAL FIN

Fig. Rohu (Labeo rohita)
Examples : Labeo (Rohu), Hippocampus (Sea-Horse), Anabas (Climbing perch).
36
NOVA JCSEBIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9
 in water.
2. Class Amphibia pass their earlylife
semiaquatic or terrestrial, but gases.
aquatic, pumose of exchange of
1. They may be keep it moist for the NOSTAIL
in glands which mouth.
2. Their skin is rich
6ORSAL LINE
extended well out of the MOUTH
large, tongue can often be
Mouth is lining of
3. the skin or lungs or
YE
takes place through
4. Respiration Gills are present in the larval stages.
TYMPANUM

buccal cavity. FINGERS

5. Heart in amphibians is three-chambered. third eyelid FORELIMB

upper and lower eyelids are immovable. A eyebals.

6. The is present to clean the
TAUNK
called nictitatingmembrane HINOLIMB TOES

Tympanum covers the middle ear.

7. External ear is absent. external.
Flg. Frog
eggs). Fertilization is
8. They are oviparous (lay
: Rana (frog), Bufo (toad), Hyla (tree frog), Salamander, etc.
Examples
Class Reptilia covered with epidermal scales.
1. The skin of reptiles is rough and dry, FINGERS EYE
EYE

2. Respiratory organs are lungs only. TRUNK

four-chambered. However,
3. The heart is incompletely TRUNK
the heart is distinctly four-chambered.
in crocodiles T IL
present. Each
4. Two pairs of pentadactyle limbs are
HINOLIMB
digit bears a homy claw. TAIL

5. They are unisexual,

oviparous and fertilization is
IFlg. (a) Wall lizard, (b) Chamaeleon
internal.
or poikilotherms and
6. The reptiles are cold-blooded
undergo hibernation duringwinter season.
Examples : Walllizard, crocodile, snakes, turtle, tortoise, etc.
4. Class Aves
their nest on the trees.
1. Birds are arboreal animals (living on trees) and make
2. The body is boat-shaped and divisible into head, neck,
trunk and a small tail.
EYE.

3. The endoskeleton is completely bony. Bones are

BEAK
-NECK
pneumatic (having air-filled spaces) and light in weight
TAIL
to assist in flight. -TRUNK

4. The heart is four-chambered.

HINDLIMB TAIL

5. The bodyof birds is covered with coloured feathers. Poacock Eaglo

6. Mouth or jaws are modified into a toothless beak. Flg. Some Avos
7. They are warm-blooded or homeotherms, i.e., body temperature always remains constant,
8. Out of the two pairs of limbs, the forelimbs are modified as wings for the pupose of flight.
9. They are unisexual. Fertilization is intenal. They are oviparous and the eggs
contain a large
quantity of yolk.

NOVA 1CSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9

 10. Lungs, are spongy and associated with air sacs.
Examples : Pigeon, spanow, crow, hoopoe, peacock, parrot, etc. TRUNK HEAD
F. Class Mammalia TAIL

1., Presence of functional mammary glands in females to

secrete milk. These are modified sweat glands. Duek-blled plebpus

2. The mammals are unisexual. In males testes, are EXTERNAL

abdomen.
present in a pouch-like scrotum outside the
PINNA
EYE

3. Body cavity of mammals is divided into two parts, i.e., TRUNK

thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity, by a muscular,

FORE
UMBS

dome-shaped diaphragm. HIND UMBs

are
4. Heart is completely four-chambered. The RBCs TAIL
Kangeroo
denucleated except in camel. Fig. Some Mammallans
spiny-ant
5. Presence of external pinna.
youngones) except Duck-billed platypus and
(give birth to
O. ney are viviparous
eaters which are oviparous.
of sweat glands
7. The skin contains a large number
and sebacious glands.
hearing, etc., are very well developed.
8. Sense orgaDs of sight,
of the body.
9. Presence of hair on any part
incisors, canines, premolars
10. Four types of teeth:
both the jaws. whale, dolphin,
and molars are present in kangaroo, rabbit, man, camel, lion,
spiny ant-eater,
Examples : Duck billed platypus,
etc.

VINAVOS=
group of animals.
two animals which belong to Porifera
O.1. Name
Ans. Sycon, Euspongia.
belong to coelenterata group of animals.
animals which
O.2. Name two
Aurelia (Jelly fish). Annelida group of animals.
Ans. Hydra, belong to
animalswhich
O.3. Name two
Ans. Earthworm, Leech. Platyhelminthes group of animals.
to
animals which belong
0.4. Name two
solium, Planaria. Arthropoda group of
animals.
Ans. Taenia belong to
animals which
Q.5. Name two
Ans. Cockroach, Prawn.
?
the largest phylun (animal group)
Q.6. Which is
Ans. Arthropoda. MANUAL
NOVAICSE BIOLOGY LAB

38
 Unit.
7 KalemtEication ot the
Struetite o Humman OrgAns
INTRODUCTION
Lungs are one
isthebasis of life and offor he important organs of the terrestrial
The skin is the release of energy locked in the vertebrate animals. They provide oxygen, which
the animal in outer food.
regulationfromof protective
painful etc.), prevents body covering ofexcretion,
temperature,
the body. The skin, in additionto
perceiving
being protective, also helps
dessication and pfany others to mention. external stimuli (such as thermal, tactile,

Experinient Nio. B-4.1

AM OF THE
EXPERIMENT
To identify the structure of the
lungs.
REQUIREMENTS
JChart or model or specimen of lungs of a goat.
PROCEDURE:
Observe the
pafs. specimen/chart/model and identify its parts. Draw a diagram of lungs and label its various
OBSERVATIONS:
(i) Lungs are a pair of soft, spongy, pinkish, elastic, conical,
heart and are connected to the larynx by the trachea. hollow organs situated one on either side of the
(ii) They are smooth, composed of numerous polyhedral areas externally.
(iii) Lungs are covered by double membranes called PRIMARY R. TRACHEA
Pleural membranes and enclose a narrow space BRONCHUS
PRIMARY
pleural sac. BRONCHIÌLES L BRONCHUS
(iv) Lungs are externallydivided into lobes by grooves or
fissures. LEFT
LUNG
(u) The trachea divides to two primary bronchus which
enter each lungand divides to fom Secondary and
tertiary bronchi. The tertiary bronchi undergo
repeated branching and the ultimate fine branches are
called Respiratory bronchioles, which open into RIGHT
LUNG
alveolar ducts leading to alveolar sacs or air sacs. BIFURCATION OF

(i) The right lung has three lobes-superior, middle

TRACHEA
(ui)
and inferior. Flg. Branches of trachea and lungs
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANÙAL-9
40
 (ii)The left lunghas two lobes-superior and inferior, smaller than right lung.
(vii) Internally each lobe has many lobules which
consists of tiny lobular bronchioles. These
bronchioles are subdivisions of the bronchi which
enter each lung from the trachea.
(uii) The terminal bronchioles lead to small passages ALVEOLAR
which are called alveolar ducts. DUCTS
(ix) The alveolar ducts open into sac like structures
called alveoliwhich are lined by asingle layer of ALVEOLI
flattened thin wall cells. The alveoli increase the
surface area for the exchange of gases.
ARTERIOLE
) The alveoliare surrounded by blood capillaries
and the deoxygenated blood gets oxygenated and
the carbon dioxide which enters the alveoli is
VENULE
passed out of the lung through the passages which
ultimately is passed out of the body during BLODD CAPILLARIES
breathing out movement in expiration. Fig. Blood supply In relation to the alveoli

xperiment No. B-4.2

AM OF THE EXPERIMENT:
To study the structure of the skin.
Theory : The skin is the outermost covering of the body. It is stretched allover in the form of a layer.
There are many structures and glands derived from the skin. The skin, together with these derivatives, is called
theintegumentarysystem.
KEQUIREMENTS: FREE NERVE HAIR
ENDING SWEAT PORE STRATUM CORNEUM
Chart or model showing internal structure BLOOD CAPILLARIES
of the skin.
GRANULAR
PROCEDURE : LAYER
EPIDERMIS STRATUM
Observe the model and draw its labelled
MALPIGHI
diagram as shown below. -SENSORY
CORPUSCLE

(1) The skin or cutis of man is thin and SEBACEOUS

delicate consisting of two main parts : GLAND
(a) Epidermis and (b) Dermis or a CHAIR BULB
connective tissue.
-NERVE
(2) Below the dermis is a layer of loose HAIR
connective tissue-subcutaneous layer FOLLICLE
- which attaches the skin and underlying -FAT
organs.
VEIN
(3) The epidermis and dermis of skin fit into -ARTERY
each other by a system of ridges and
grooves, ridge of one fitting into the sWEAT áLAND ARRECTOA MUSCLE OFHAIR HAIR PAPILLA
groove of the other.
Flg. V.S. Human Skln (Dlagramatic)

NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9 |41

(4) Epidemis is outer non-vascular, thin region of the skin which is made-up of stratified
ismade-up of several layers of the cells. eplthellum I.e., t
(5) The thickness of the epidenis varies in different parts, being thickest in the palms and
soles.
(0) The lowemost Stratum Malpighi (stratum germinativum) is often used as synonymous to stratum
basale since the basal layer is normaly the chief region of mitosis (a type of somatic cel dlvision).
(7 The outemost layers of dead, keratinized cells constitute the stratum corneum which is water-proot
and germ-proof. It is cast off as small pieces at intervals.
(S) The three middle sub-layers consist of flattened cells.
(9) Colouration of the skin (e.a.. the complexion of the face) is due to a pigment melanin contained in the
cellsof the geminativum layer. The different quantities of this pigment in different human races, lead to
from very light-brown to dark colouration.
(10) The dermis is the inner thick laver of connective tissue made of elastic fibres. It is tough and flexible.
(12) The dermis contains several other structures-blood vessels, nerve fibres, sensory receptors, hair
follicles, sweat gland etc.
(12) The outer region of the demis is raised into numerous small processes called papillae which contain
Olood cap1lanes, sensory copuscles, nerve endings and inner region consists of dense connective tissue.
They are concerned with sensations of touch and pain and sensations of pressure, pain, heat, cold etc.
(13) The special derivatives of the human skin inlude the following :
(a) Hairs (b) Nails
(c) Sebaceous glands (oil glands) () Sudoriferous glands (Sweat glands)
(e) Mammary glands

AVNAoCE =
Q.1. Define epiglottis.
Ans. It is a flap-like structure, which guard the entrance to the trachea. It closes trachea at the time of swallowing
food.
Q.2. What is the function of larynx ?
range
Ans. t is also called voice box or "Adams apple" a hollow cartilaginous structure meant for producing
of sounds.
Q.3. What are bronchioles ?
and are without cartilage rings.
Ans. These are the finer tubes of tertiary bronchiwith diameter of about 1mm
through them.
Q.4. Name the parts which allow gaseous exchange
thick walls, representing ultimate ends of
Ans. Alveolior air sacs (sing. alveolus) with extremely thin one cell
repeatediy branching bronchioles.
lungs.
Q.5. Name the two membranous coverings of the
fluid (pleural fluid) between the
Ans. The inner visceral pleura and the outer parietal pleura with a watery
two membranes.

42
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL-9
 Unit,
Breathing
INTRODUCTION
Breathing is a simple physical process
(Expiration).
diaphragm). Breathingis facilitated by the involving intake of fresh air (Inhalation) and removal of foul air
expansion and contraction of thoracic cavity ('Chest
Breathing man is brought about with the help of the respiratory system. This system
series of air papassagesin cavity-ribs and
During its passage, thesupported
air
most of the wayby bones or cartilages so that air can go
in or
consists of
come out freely.
ne respiratory ogans calledundergoes moistening. cleaning, sterilisation
lungs in the tboracic cavity. It is here that and waming. These passages lead to
exchange of gases takes place.
Experiternt No, B-5
ÁIM OF THE
EXPERIMENT :
To studythe mechanism of
breathing.
REQUIREMENTS:
Abell jar, one holed stopper, a Y-shaped glass tube, two balloons, a thin sheet of
string/thread. rubber or polythene,
PROCEDURE :
Set up the apparatus as shown inthe fig. Care must be taken that no air enters the bll jarthrough the
rubber sheet or the edges of stopper.
Here, jar represents Rib cage. The stem of the Y-glass tube represents the trachea, the fork of the tube, the
two bronchi and the two balloons represent the two lungs. The ubber sheet tied fimly around the rim at
the bottom of the jar represents the
diaphragm. Tie a thread in themiddle of the AIR FORCED OUT. FRESH AIR TAKEN IN
rubber sheet on the lower side for
manipulating the 'diaphragm'. Make the
connections air-tight by applying vaseline.
Y-TUBE
ÓBSERVATIONS : CHEST OCAVITY (TRACHEA)
(1) Gently press the diaphragm by your hand .BALLOONS.
upwards (A)and observe the changes in the (LUNGS)
balloons. The balloons collapse, resulting in -JAR
forcing out the air (exhalation). (RIBCAGE)
downwards (B) and
(2) Now, pull the diaphragm the balloons. The RUBBER
observe the changes in of
SHEET
balloons expand, resulting in the intake
(DIAPHRAGI) (B)
(A) INHALATION
EXHALATION
fresh air (inhalation).
Flg. Mechanlsm of Resplratlon
MANUAL-9
NOVA ICSE BIOLOGY LAB
44