GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Text Book: General Chemistry-Principles and Modern Applications

Authors: Petrucci, Harwood, Herring, Madura)
Publisher: Pearson International Addition

ATOMS AND THE ATOMIC THEORY

What is chemistry?

Kimya?

Etymology of chemistry?

Alchemy?

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Modern Chemistry- Antoine Lavosier (1743-1794)

Experimental foundation of
chemistry
- set up experimental chemistry by
using measurement techniques
-explanation of burning
(phlogiston theory)
-discovery of oxygen
-the law of conservation of mass
Total mass remains constant
during a chemical change!

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What is Atom ?

John Dalton (1766-1844)

Dalton’s Atomic Theory- Billiard Ball Atom Model-
John Dalton viewed the atom as a small solid sphere
-All materials are composed of indivisible
particles are called atom. Atoms can be
neither created nor destroyed during a
chemical change.
-All atoms of an element are alike in mass and
other properties, but the atoms of one
element are different from those of all other
elements.

* the law of conservation of masses

and
* the law of definite proportions by
Joseph Proust (1754-1826)
-In a single compound (such as H2O or CO) the ratio of it's component
elements is a fixed whole number ratio. For example, in water (H2O)

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the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1. In Carbon monoxide (CO) the
ratio of carbon to oxygen is 1:1.

Lead(II)sulfide PbS

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Dalton stated that if two elements form more than a single compound,
the masses of one elements combined with a fixed mass of the second
are in the ratio of small whole numbers: the law of multiple
proportions

Oxygen of NO : Oxygen of NO2

1.143 : 2.286

1.143 /1.143 : 2.286/1.143

1: 2 whole number ratio

Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940)

Plum Pudding Model of Atom : J. J. Thomson proposed that atom was a
sphere of positive electricity with a negative particles.

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The discovery of electrons

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Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) The Planetary Model of the Atom

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However!!!

BOHR’S ATOM MODEL and QUANTUM THEORY

Max Planck “Energy can not be continous”

Niels Bohr

Bohr postulate that

1- Electrons can be exist in the
circular orbits (energy levels)
about the nucleous. When
electrons move in their orbit,
they do not emit energy.
2- Electrons can be exist in only
allowed energy levels or orbits.
These levels are called stationary
states.

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 3- Electrons can only move allowed
orbits or energy levels. When
electrons go to the higher energy
level (excitation of electron). They
absorb energy.
When electrons go to the lower
energy levels from the higher ones,
they emit energy.

Energy of
photon = ΔE
ΔE = E3 – E2
= hν
h = Planck’s
constant
6.62607×10−34 Js

ν = frequency
of photon

En = −RH / n2
RH = Rydberg constant ( 2.179 × 10−18 J)
ΔE = E3 – E2 = hν
ΔE = (−RH / 32) − (−RH / 22)
ΔE = 2.179 × 10−18 J (1/32 −1/22)

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Light, photon, electromagnetic radiation
Light is electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is a form
of energy transmission as electromagnetic waves.

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The speed of electromagnetic waves is constant and 2.99 X 108 m/s in
vacuum.
C = νλ
The Particle Interpretation of light, Photons
Photoelectric effect experiment

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 Wave-Particle Duality of Light (de Broglie relation)

In 1924 de Broglie’s relation pointed out that just as a

light, electron also has both particle and wave nature. According
to de Broglie, this dual nature — wave and particle — should not
be confined to radiations alone but should also be extended to
matter. He suggested that electrons travel in waves, analogous to
light waves.

λ = h/mV (de Broglie Relation)

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Figur: Interference in two overlapping waves

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

We can not absolutely determine the position and momentum of an electron at
the same time.

ΔxΔp ≥ h /4π
Δx = uncertainty in the position of particle
Δp = uncertainty in the momentum of
particle

Δx mΔV ≥ h/4π

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MODERN ATOM AND ORBITALS
An orbital is a region around the nucleous where the
probability of finding an electron is high!
An orbital is a mathemetical function that describes the
wave-like behaviour of an electron in an atom. This
function can be used to calculate the probability of finding
an electron in any specific reagion around the nucleous.

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 QUANTUM NUMBERS AND ORBITALS
• n, l, ml, and ms
– Used to describe an electron in an atom
• Probable location

1) Principal Quantum Number (n)

– non-zero positive integer numbers
n = 1, 2, 3, ……..
– Represents main energy level of electron
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• Maximum # of electrons in an energy level = 2n
Example: What is the maximum number of electrons that can be in
the 5th main energy level?
2(52) = 50

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2) Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
– Zero and all positive integer numbers
between zero and n-1
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, …….. n-1
thus, l value can not be bigger than n
It describes the shape of the orbitals !
l = 0 (s); 1 (p); 2 (d); 3 (f)
Different orbitals in the same principle energy level (the
same n value) belong to different subshell or sublevel.
When the numerical value of l increase, the energy of subshell
increase!
f>d>p>s
for n = 1; l = 0 (s)
for n = 2; l = 0, 1 (s, p)
for n = 3; l = 0, 1, 2 (s, p, d)
3) Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
Positive and negative integers between –l and l
−l …… -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 …….. l
For example; for l = 1 (p orbital)
ml= -1, 0, 1 (three different p orbitals)
for l = 2 (d orbital)
ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 (five different d orbitals)

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Magnetic quantum number describes different orientation of an
orbital in space!

4) Spin Quantum Number (ms)

The electron is a negatively charged particle and round itself. If a
charge moves in a direction produces electric current. An electric
current generates a magnetic field!

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Determine the wavelength of the line in the Balmer Series of
hydrogen corresponding to transition from n = 5 to n =2.

E=5

n=5

Energy of photon = ΔE
n =2 ΔE = Efinal – Einitial
E =2
= hν
h = Planck’s constant = 6.62607×10−34 Js
ν = frequency of photon
En = −RH / n2
RH = Rydberg constant ( 2.179 × 10−18 J)
ΔE = E2 – E5 = hν
ΔE = (−RH / 22) − (−RH / 52)
ΔE = RH (1 / 52) − (1 / 22)
ΔE = 2.179 × 10−18 J (1/52 −1/22) = − 4.576 x 10−19 J (energy emitted)
ΔE = hν = 4.576 x 10−19 J
4.576 x 10−19 J = 6.62607×10−34 Js . ν
v= 6.906×1014 s−1
c=λv
3.00x108m/s = λ x 6.906×1014 s−1
= 4.34x10-7 m = 434 nm

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Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not allowed?
a) n = 4; l = 3; ml = -1
b) n = 3; l = 2; ml = +1
c) n = 3; l = 0; ml = +1
d) n = 2; l = 3; ml = -1

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