Review Educ. Technol. Res.

, 39(1), 15-23, 2016

The Research Trends in Game-Based Learning and Open

Education†
Toru FUJIMOTO *1, Katsusuke SHIGETA*2 and Yuki FUKUYAMA *1
*The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
*Hokkaido University, Kita 11 Nishi 5 Kita-ku, Sapporo-shi, Hokkaido, 060-0811 Japan

Received for publication, February 13, 2017

Game-based learning and open education are two areas of research that have attracted attention
in recent years within the global trend of educational technology research, recognized as important
subjects for study that will become increasingly popular in the next few years. This paper outlines
the research trends in both game-based learning and open education, and places them in the
perspective of multidisciplinary research, given the prospect of SIG’s “Game-based Learning and
Open Education” that was launched in 2014 by the Japan Society for Educational Technology.

Keywords: game-based learning, open education, gamification, OER, MOOC

Open education refers to any “practice” that

1. INTRODUCTION eliminates the various barriers to receiving
education and increases educational opportunities
Game-based learning and open education are by “opening up education to everybody.”
two areas of research that have attracted Practices associated with open education are
attention in recent years in the research field of extensive, ranging from sharing educational
educational technology, and are recognized as materials such as educational tools and video
important areas of research that will become lectures, to running open learning groups, to the
increasingly popular in the next few years (NMC shared use of learning assessment tools (Brown et
and Educause 2013). al. 2008). Key practices include the development
Game-based learning includes the study of of OER (Open Educational Resources) shared on
educational uses for traditional games, the the Internet, the development of websites that
development of games as educational materials, release open educational materials such as OCW
simulation-based learning and gaming study, the (OpenCourseWare), the establishment of a study
recent emergence of serious games, and the community using OER, and the introduction of
gamification of education. Game-based learning is online education using OER such as MOOC
not limited to those found in school education and (Massive Open Online Course). Open education
formal educational environments; important must understand, on a theoretical and practical
secondary subjects in the research into level, the effect and significance of activities for
game-based learning include entertainment opening education, as exemplified in learning
education (Singhal et al 2004), incidental learning assessment of open education, in connection with
induced during recreational activities, and informal society and higher education institutions. This
learning environments called “affinity spaces” extends to the development of theories on the
(Gee 2004) which are based on games and significance and effect of educational openness,
entertainment. Game-based learning has been regardless of academic fields and educational
increasingly recognized as one of the primary area targets.
of research in educational technology in Japan, as
seen in the publication of an educational 2. STUDY OF TRENDS IN GAME-BASED LEARNING
technology anthology entitled “Games for
Education and Learning” (Fujimoto, Morita 2017) Game-based learning includes not only digital
released by the Japan Society for Educational entertainment games, as is generally imagined, but
Technology. also learning that uses games in a wide variety of

15
16 T. FUJIMOTO, K. SHIGETA and Y. FUKUYAMA

ways. Many researchers offer a definition of a Focus on mimicry and Focus on elements
game. For example, McGonigal (2011) points out the systemic aspect of pleasure
the four most fundamental elements of a game: (1) Gaming and Entertainment
goal, (2) rule, (3) feedback system, and (4) ‐1990s’ Simulation Education
voluntary participation.
Currently, research in this domain is not 1990s’ Edutainment
sufficiently advanced in Japan. When considering
research trends overseas, however, it is clear that
this research domain has been steadily developing 2000s’ Serious Games
over the past 10 years.
For example, when searching the ERIC (an
educational literature database) the number of 2010s’ Gamification
peer-reviewed papers concerning game-based
learning was approximately 5 times greater in 2012
than in 2002 (Fujimoto 2017). Advanced practices Figure 1. Historical shift in game education and learnin
in school education have also emerged, as
illustrated by the efforts of the school named 2.1. Effects and challenges of game-based learning
“Quest to Learn” to go beyond using games The significance of applying game elements has
merely as educational materials and to design the been investigated from various perspectives in
entire educational curriculum applying game terms of educational methodology and the design
design approach (Salen et al. 2009). of learning environment, and from the perspective
Fujimoto (2017) summarized the historical shifts of affinity with learning principles in particular. In
in education and learning that makes use of games this vein, Steinkuehler & Squire (2014) discuss the
(Figure 1). The approach of using games in roles of a game in education and found 4 roles: (1)
education and learning has a long history, and providing content to learners, (2) assisting
various efforts were established prior to the learners to acquire useful cognitive skills and to
diffusion of personal computers. These efforts are subconsciously prepare for the future learning, (3)
seen in “gaming & simulation,” which focuses on acting as a tool for learning assessment, and (4)
mimicry of games and rule-governed activities, encouraging participation in activities.
rather than the sense of entertainment that games The advantages and disadvantages of using
bring. They were also concerned with games as educational media and the barriers to its
“entertainment education,” which focuses on the adoption have also been studied by researchers
elements of fun involved in a game, developing recently (Kropfer et al, 2008; Games and learning
entertaining games for educational purposes or org 2014, etc.). The advantages of games are as
using entertainment games in educational contexts. follows: they inspire increased motivation for
The concept of “edutainment” that spread as learning; they make complicated problem solving
multi-media learning became popular comes under easier; they promote reflective learning; they
this trend. In the 2000s, the concept of a “serious facilitate learning from trials and errors; and they
game” was proposed as a generic term for support learning while making mistakes in a safe
“development and use of a game to solve social environment. The disadvantages, however, are as
problems” including education (Fujimoto 2007). follows: they tend to make learning unnecessarily
This movement enabled to establish a common time-consuming; they make it hard for teachers to
research community by sharing common research take control of the class; and they are subject to
interests in the social use of games, primarily in limitations in terms of available facilities (Table 1).
western countries. 4 categories of barriers to game adoption in
educational environments have been suggested:
(1) “barriers at the time of adoption” refers to the
difficulty in conforming to the educational
curriculum, the presence of teachers and parents
who have negative impressions of games, and
limitations in course hours; (2) “barriers at the
time of design and development” refers to high
development costs, lack of experience in
developing games in collaboration with educational
 The Research Trends in Game-based Learning and Open Education 17

specialists, and the difficulty of practicing games learning contributes to policy decisions made by
in educational environments; (3) “barriers against education administrations. Furthermore, the
sustenance” refers to users’ quickly changing report describes on-going efforts to learn through
needs and the speed of technological progress; (4) game development and to develop a school
“barriers against innovation” refers to the curriculum applying game-based learning
insufficient amount of available research data and (Fujimoto 2015).
outdated educational philosophy. Additionally, the reports suggest that the
following three advances have been made in recent
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of digital years: (1) progress in coordinated activities with
game-based education major companies, (2) progress in educational
(Excerpts from Fujimoto 2017) assessment research, and (3) adoption of
Advantage Disadvantage gamification in ICT education (Fujimoto and
Motivation ・Enhances ・Reduces interest Shigeta 2016).
motivation in in conventional First, regarding “progress in coordinated
learning learning activities with major companies,” a growing
activities ・Tends to be
number of major game companies and educational
・Easy for evaluated
students to against games publishing companies have entered the
continue for game-based learning industry and have conducted
efforts toward entertainment activities in collaboration with university
mastery researchers. Thus, it is argued that the current
Activity ・Prompts ・Winning in a situation goes against the prevailing belief that
understanding game can be major enterprises in the entertainment game
of complex prioritized and
concepts learning industry are not interested in developing learning
・Encourages neglected games (Prensky 2001).
reflective ・Makes it For example, EA (one of the major game
learning difficult for company) has set up GlassLab (Glasslab, 2012) in
・Improves teachers to take conjunction with such non-profit organizations as
learning via control of the
Institute of Play and Educational Testing Service
feedback class
・Unnecessarily (ETS). Microsoft has provided MineCraft for
・Easy to let
students focus time consuming educational purposes (Forey, 2016). There is a
on important growing tendency for major companies to enter
subjects the game-based learning industry by offering
Environment ・Creates a ・Subject to popular entertainment games in the educational
learning limitations in industry through industry-university cooperation.
environment terms of
Secondly, regarding “progress in educational
based on trial available
and error facilities assessment research,” it is suggested that there is
・Helps students a growing trend of applying educational
to learn in safe assessment into game-based learning (Fujimoto,
environment Yamada 2013). The “embedded assessment”
・Helps students approach, incorporating the evidence-centered
to practice design of the educational assessment method,
independently
furthers the research by assessing learners’
actions during the game play, based on defined
2.2. Trends in game-based learning overseas educational assessment indices (Shute, 2011). It
The main trends in game-based learning has been considered that measuring efficacy of
overseas have been described in the SIG Reports game-based learning has allegedly been an issue
(Japan Society for Educational Technology SIG-05 and where there has not been much progress; that
2015, 2016) issued by the SIG “Game-Based situation is now changing.
Learning and Open Education” in the Japan Lastly, regarding the “adoption of gamification
Society for Educational Technology. According to in ICT education,” the concept of
the reports, large-scale research projects were “gamification”—which refers to the application of
conducted and research institutes for game-based the game mechanics and game design methods to
learning were established primarily in North development of products other than games—is
America and Europe. The research of game-based relevant to the mechanism of improving motivation
18 T. FUJIMOTO, K. SHIGETA and Y. FUKUYAMA

for learning and of providing continuous learning “Connect the World II,” which allows students to
support. This has widely popularized the approach experience social dilemmas and encourages
of incorporating gamification into the mechanism cooperative behavior. It was shown that the game,
of learning support in programming education. by incorporating roles in a group, is more likely to
Incorporating game elements is no longer seen as improve “trust” in social dilemma situations where
innovative, and we can say that research has players cooperate to achieve a common goal,
moved on to the advanced phase in which the compared to games that pursue only individual
individual learning support method has to be goals.
established in order to improve the effect of the With the progression of ICT technology in
game. recent years, an increasing number of games used
in educational environments can also be used for
2.3. Research into game-based learning in the high-level learning. Furthermore, the project of
Japan Society for Educational Technology deploying tablets in school classrooms has been
Nishiura (2017) surveyed 13 papers containing taken forward, and the environment for
the keyword “game” listed in the Journal of Japan game-based learning is currently being created.
Society for Educational Technology between 2005 Yet, there are currently only a few schools in
and 2013. The following section describes the which educational games are used on a long-term
characteristics of these papers with reference to basis in Japan, and we cannot find evidence of any
Nishiura. In terms of paper format, the number of practice that has become popular beyond the
short papers is higher with 9 such papers—most of aforementioned “adoption barriers.” Furthermore,
these are preliminary reports which mainly many researchers focus on programming education
describe game design in terms of learning or environment education in their research, and
materials, such as card game development and research interests cannot be said to be as diverse
programming education, and which inform as overseas trends. We hope that diverse studies
outcomes of its educational usage. on game-based learning will emerge, including
The areas of research can be roughly classified research into educational games and gamification
into three practical categories: (1) research into in education (which incorporates aspects of
card game development and its evaluation, (2) educational games and elements of games), and
research into programming education and its also that there will be increased opportunities for
assessment, (3) research into media utilization and taking advantage of knowledge offered by such
its assessment in course instruction. studies.
There is a tendency to adopt relatively weak
controlled research programs based on quasi 3. RESEARCH TRENDS IN OPEN EDUCATION
experiment design and case study design, as the
kind of experimental design that reveals a causal This chapter takes a brief look at research in
relation, by manipulating independent variables relation to open education and its trends both in
and measuring dependent variables, which can be Japan and overseas. In addition, related studies in
presumed to give rise to situations far removed open education, as listed in the SIG report, will be
from the ordinary learning environment. introduced.
Studies on analog games, such as card games,
tend to be accepted by education and practical 3.1. Research in open education
journals more often than studies on digital games. Overseas, multiple research groups and
For example, Ikejiri (2011) developed a companies have been vigorously studying the
multi-player card game for education, which utilization of OER (Open Educational Resources).
utilizes historical causal relations as analogs of Babson Survey Research Group has continuously
problem solving, and measured its effect. It was surveyed the utilization of OER in higher
found that this educational material effectively education. In 2014, a survey was conducted
improved the ability to associate a historical event regarding the level of awareness and utilization of
with a contemporary event that has the same OER in the United States, and in 2015, a survey
properties as said historical event, and the ability was conducted concerning OER utilization in the
to analyze causal relations in contemporary State University of North Dakota, which stressed
problems with reference to causal relations in OER adoption (Allen and Seaman 2014 and
historical problems. Fukuyama and Nakahara Spilovoy and SEeaman 2015). In these surveys,
(2012) developed an educational game entitled approximately 35% of faculties were aware of the
 The Research Trends in Game-based Learning and Open Education 19

existence of OER, and the greatest barrier for schools have adopted open textbooks in the
adopting OER in lectures was reported to be the United States. 38 community colleges in 13 states
time and energy spent to find and evaluate a collaborated and adopted open textbooks in order
fit-for-purpose OER. It was also shown that to reduce educational costs (Achieving the dream
faculties evaluated the OER as not significantly 2016). Tidewater Community College uses open
different in quality from the textbooks that had textbooks called Z-degree to offer programs in
hitherto been used. which students can take courses without paying
In Japan, Ministry of Education, culture sports, textbook fees (Tidewater Community College
science and technology-Japan (MEXT) has 2016). Cengage Learning predicts that the use of
continually investigated the provision and OER as supplementary learning material will triple
utilization of OER and MOOC (Massive Open over the next 5 years (Cengage Learning 2016). In
Online Course) in higher education institutions in the future, OER will become increasingly
Japan (Kyoto University 2014). widespread in educational environments, in line
with the need to reduce costs and to open
3.2. Practical studies in open education opportunity of learning.
Practical studies related mainly to MOOC have With regard to MOOC, an increasing number of
been actively pursued in Japan and overseas. One universities give credits using MOOC and
such study is concerned with enhancing the rate of collaborate with other universities using MOOC.
MOOC completion. De Barba et al. (2016) The University of Leeds in England launched
surveyed relationships between participation in course programs using Futurelearn (THE News
MOOC and motivation for participation, and 2016a) ． Delft University of Technology in the
revealed that motivation for participation affects Netherlands and universities in Australia and
actual participation, and that situational interests Canada launched inter-university collaborative
play an important intermediary role in motivating academic programs using MOOC (THE News
learning and participation, as shown in the 2016b)．There are also cases in which MOOC is
performance of participants. Evans et al. (2016) used for pre-university education in Japan
analyzed factors that predict the continuation of (Docomo gacco, Osaka Sangyo University 2016)．
MOOC participation and course completion from
course data in Coursera. Malin (2015) reveals the 3.4. Connection with lifelong learning
efficacy of using message boards for MOOC Job placement using a certificate earned from
participants in auto-ethnography. Due to the wide MOOC as evidence of students’ skills is also
variety of participants in MOOC, study assistance popular. MOOC providers such as Udacity help
that aligns with the characteristics and motivation excellent students to find jobs in IT companies,
of participants is required. Studies for enhancing and deploy educational services such as Open
learning outcomes of MOOC as an open Education Alliance for training young workers, in
educational platform are considered to promote in collaboration with IT companies. There is a
the future. suggestion that tracking the history of online
In addition, many studies have been learning and building a “blockchain,” which serves
implemented that incorporate MOOC into blended as evidence of skills, allows us to visualize learning
learning (Najafi et al. 2014, etc.). In Japan, studies outcomes (Komiyama 2016). Furthermore, open
have been conducted into the educational effect education can contribute to not only helping
and reliability of mutual assessment on MOOC students find jobs, but also changing
platform (Watanabe et al. 2015, Ishii et al. 2016, methodologies of developing human resources and
etc.). creating learning communities suitable for
contemporary society (Shigeta 2016a). Open
3.3. Connection with higher education education activities will henceforth continue to
Given the progress made in research into open bring changes in the domain of lifelong learning.
education, the outcomes of open education
activities such as OER and MOOC have been 3.5. Utilization of learning data and its concerns
incorporated into higher education, and an Because a huge amount of learning data can be
increasing number of schools use it to reduce retrieved from MOOC, we anticipate the
educational costs and to improve student development of research and educational services
outcomes. to take advantage of this. MIT and Harvard
With regard to OER, an increasing number of University anonymized learning data obtained from
20 T. FUJIMOTO, K. SHIGETA and Y. FUKUYAMA

edX, and then publicly released it (Dataverse 3.6.2. Studies concerning OER research facilities in
2014). A number of research groups emerged in foreign countries
Japan and overseas that utilize learning data to Nagashima (2016) examined the principal
seek educational improvement. Although research facilities around the world that study
utilization of learning data is expected to OER and its associated characteristics. In England,
contribute to educational research, ensuring there is a research base called “OER Hub” which
learners’ privacy is a huge challenge, for example endeavors to verify the hypotheses regarding the
in terms of secure data protection and the risk of effect of OER. With the support of Open
combining data with other private information. We University in England, it has carried out research
hope that utilization of learning data will lead to into various topics including OER, MOOC, open
genuine educational improvement, without being textbooks, and open access, and also releases
accused of being “education for research.” research outcomes under an open license.
In the United States, there is a research base
3.6. Related studies published in the SIG report called Open Education Group, which is driven by
The aforementioned SIG report (Japan Society researchers at Brigham Young University. They
for Educational Technology SIG-05 2015, 2016), conduct research using the COUP framework,
in SIG’s “game-based learning and open which places importance on four elements: Cost,
education” listed several existing survey studies Outcomes, Usage, and Perceptions. Specifically,
and discussions on the topic of open education, they deploy OER, such as open textbooks in
which we will briefly look at here. university, and conduct a survey and an analysis,
focusing on the above four elements. The project
3.6.1. Analyzing the current adoption and purpose is partly funded by the Gates Foundation and the
of OER and MOOC in Japan Hewlett Foundation, and is one of the central
Shigeta (2016b) analyzed the current adoption drivers for OER research in the United States.
and purpose of offering OER and MOOC in higher As for studies on open education, the Babson
education, by comparing an exhaustive survey Survey Research Group founded in 2005 within
conducted in higher education institutions across Babson College publishes the OER-related survey
the country in the 2015 tax year with the same report in the United States every 2 years. The
survey taken in the 2013 tax year. Results showed latest report published in 2016 surveys
that, although the degree of awareness of OER perceptions of OER and its current adoption
had enhanced, less than 20% of institutions offered across more than 3000 faculties and reports its
OER, even among national universities and findings (Allen and Seaman, 2016).
technical colleges where the rate was highest. It
also showed that only approximately 10 % of 3.6.3. Open education policy in EU
institutions were utilizing OER. MOOC offering Shigeta and Watanabe (2015) revealed the
also increased from the previous survey. In terms characteristics of open educational policy in EU in
of the purpose of offering OER and MOOC, the comparison to those of United of States. The EU
purpose of offering OER was to improve students’ committee released a policy entitled “Opening up
learning environments and to extend their options, Education: Innovative teaching and learning for all
while the purpose of MOOC was primarily related through new Technologies and Open Educational
to social contribution and PR. Resources” in September 2013. This policy
Although awareness of OER has steadily focuses on the principal methods of open
increased in Japan, the number of institutions that education such as open educational resources
offer OER and MOOC is limited. Moreover, an (OER), MOOC, open badges, etc. It also
analysis of survey outcomes showed that there is a announces its own unique direction, while bearing
difference in the purpose of offering between OER in mind the efforts of the United States. Its three
and MOOC: while OER is recognized as main points are innovation, nurturing ICT skills,
contributing to improving learning environments and developing ICT environments.
for self-instruction, MOOC is considered in the Particular attention has been paid to improving
realm of outreach activities, as evidenced by the global competitiveness and alleviating
delivery of educational information and social unemployment issues through the EU’s open
contribution. education policy, and it is thus strongly
characterized as an economic policy. Widening
access to education is often
 The Research Trends in Game-based Learning and Open Education 21

positioned—particularly in the United States—as a 4. THE PROSPECT OF SYNERGIZED RESEARCH

bold measure for reducing ever-increasing tuitions INTO GAME-BASED LEARNING AND OPEN
and fees for course materials, and as a measure for EDUCATION
providing learning and education opportunities. In
the EU, attention is also paid to improving Thus far, this paper has outlined research
equality in education, and they view the adoption trends in both game-based learning and open
of ICT as a way to reduce educational costs and education, examining what kind of research has
contribute to equal opportunity. The EU been carried out in these fields.
emphasizes bringing equal benefits of educational Both of these fields have advanced rapidly in
sophistication to all people. In contrast to the recent years overseas, while research in Japan has
United States, in which a small number of not advanced to the same extent. The SIG of the
businesses as innovators transform education, Japan Society for Educational Technology has
educational institutions within the EU regions therefore taken the lead in encouraging
extensively seek the sophistication of education. researchers in game-based learning and open
Its defining characteristic lies in situating open education to cooperate with each other, aiming to
education as a way of ensuring the sophistication develop a community that can report excellent
of learning and education, using ICT for that research outcomes domestically and
purpose. internationally.
SIG activities include distributing information on
3.6.4. Elements of business model in MOOC research trends, as demonstrated in this article,
business and examining novel multidisciplinary research
Kitamura (2015) considered the University of subjects. Interesting research subjects have been
Tokyo and Hokkaido University as case studies discussed including the following: the development
for engaging in MOOC business: the two of continuous learning support tools that
institutions were compared according to a incorporate elements of a game in online learning
framework of business model canvas, and the environment using OER; the application of
author tried to extract and enumerate elements learning assessment methods developed in each
considered a business model in order to discuss field; and the study of enhancing motivation for
business models in MOOC business. learning, which incorporates the game design
The business model canvas—a framework approach in learning environments, such as
proposed by Osterwalder and others in 2010 to MOOC for a large number of participants. A
represent business models—is used to discuss problem that may not be visible from the
business strategy and consultation, as well as to perspective of a certain field can become apparent
develop entrepreneurs and management personnel. when seen from the perspective of another field.
The analysis showed that, although items in The former reveals the research significance and
client segment (CS) were common in both schools, research direction of the latter, which can lead to
including potential clients, Hokkaido University a mutually beneficial study. In the future, we
focused on faculties and students inside and would like to develop such multidisciplinary
outside the university (collaborating with national studies and distribute many high quality findings.
universities), while the University of Tokyo
focused on international students and overseas ACKNOWLEDGMENT
students in general. This is because the benefit
sought in the MOOC business differs between We would like to express our gratitude to those
Hokkaido University and the University of Tokyo: who participated in the activities of SIG-05
the former seeks local contribution through game-based learning and open education, and
collaboration of university education via distance especially to contributors to the SIG report.
learning and flipped classrooms, while the latter
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