Groups 1

1 Introduction to Groups
Definition 1 A Group G is a set with an operation ∗ which satisfies the following:
1. there is an identity element e ∈ G, such that for every a ∈ G

e∗a=a∗e=e

2. every element has an inverse, i.e. if a ∈ G there exists an element a−1 ∈ G

a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e

3. the group is closed under the operation, i.e. if a ∈ G and b ∈ G then a ∗ b ∈ G.

4. the associativity rule is satisfied: i.e. for all a, b, c ∈ G

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c

What does this mean?

• A group consists of two things:

1. a set of elements
2. an ‘operation’ which acts upon two elements in the set to return another element. This
operation must satisfy the properties given above.

• the set can contain a finite or infinite number of elements

• the set must contain an identity. There can only be one identity. The identity depends on the
operation.
Example: For the real numbers, 0 is the identity for addition, but 1 is the identity for mul-
tiplication.

• Every element in the set must have an inverse in the set too (depending on the operation)
Example: For the real numbers, taking the number 5, under addition its inverse is −5, but
under multiplication it is 15 .
 • The operator ∗ may not give you an element which is not in the set, so if a, b ∈ G and
a∗b=c c∈
/G
then it is not a group.
• Associativity just checks that the order which you apply the operation does not matter.
• Note that we do not care about the following:
a∗b=b∗a
In many groups (especially those of matrices) this is not true, but that’s okay. If this is true,
then we say the operation is commutative. As long as
a∗b∈G and b∗a∈G
then the group is closed under the operation.

A group whose operation is commutative is called Abelian.

1.1 Examples
Examples are core to understanding the concept of groups. I shall take some set and operation
pairings (S, ∗) and see if they are groups by checking the required properties.

1.1.1 G1 = (Z, +)
Here the set is all the integers Z, under the operation of addition “+”. Taking each property in
turn:
• Identity: What number can you add to 5 to get 5? More mathematically x + 5 = 5, solve for
x. Ans: x = 0. So we can see that for addition the identity is zero, since for every a ∈ Z
a+0=0+a=a

• Inverse: What number can you add to 5 to get the identity 0? That is we want to solve
x + 5 = 0 for x. Ans: x = −5. So under addition, −5 is the inverse of 5. Extending this, you
may say that for every a ∈ Z there is an inverse −a ∈ Z so that
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0

• Closure: If you add an integer to an integer, do you always get an integer? Yes! It is enough
to state this fact, and conclude that when a, b ∈ G1 then a + b ∈ G1 .
• Associativity: The operation of addition is associative since
a + (b + c) = a + b + c = (a + b) + c
i.e. the order you add integers is irrelevant.
Since all four properties are true, then G1 a group.
1.2 G2 = (R, · )
Here we take the set of all real numbers with the operation of multiplication “ · ”.

• Identity: What number can you multiply by 5 to get 5? Ans: 1. So for addition, the identity
is one, since for every a ∈ R
a·1=1·a=a

• Inverse: What number can you multiply by 5 to get the identity 1? Ans: 15 . So under
multiplication, 15 is the inverse of 5. Extending this, can we say that for every a ∈ R there is
an inverse 51 ∈ R so that
1 1
a· = ·a=1 ?
a a
1
No! The element 0 does not have an inverse! The fraction 0
is not defined.

Since this property is false, G2 is not a group.

How can we make this a group? Since the only problem element is 0, try the following:

1.3 G3 = (R \ {0}, · )
Here we take the set of all real numbers, but excluding the number 0, with the operation of multi-
plication “ · ”.

• Identity: As above, the identity is 1.

1
• Inverse: Is it true that for every a ∈ R there is an inverse a
∈ R \ 0 so that

1 1
a· = ·a=1 ?
a a
Yes!

• Closure: If you multiply two (non-zero) real numbers, do you always get a (non-zero) real
number? Yes! It is enough to state this fact, and conclude that when a, b ∈ G3 then a · b ∈ G3 .

• Associativity: The operation of addition is associative since

a · (b · c) = a · b · c = (a · b) · c

since the order you multiply real numbers is irrelevant.

Since all four properties are true, G3 is a group.

1.4 G4 = (M2 (R), +)
Here the set is all the 2 × 2 matrices whose entries are real numbers, under the operation of addition
“+”. So every element a ∈ M2 (R) is of the form:
 
a1,1 a1,2
a=
a2,1 a2,2

where a1,1 , a1,2 , a2,1 , a2,2 ∈ R. Addition of two matrices is defined as:
     
a1,1 a1,2 b1,1 b1,2 a1,1 + b1,1 a1,2 + b1,2
+ = (?)
a2,1 a2,2 b2,1 b2,2 a2,1 + b2,1 a2,2 + b2,2

Taking each property in turn:

• Identity: a ∈ M2 (R). Take  

0 0
e= ∈ M2 (R)
0 0
Then it is easy to see that
a+e=e+a=a

• Inverse: For every a ∈ M2 (R) there is an inverse “−a”∈ M2 (R) of the form
 
−a1,1 −a1,2
−a =
−a2,1 −a2,2

a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0

• Closure: If you add two real numbers, you always get an real number (since (R, +) is a group).
Adding two matrices is in effect, adding their components. The components are real, so their
sum is real It is enough to state this, and conclude that when a, b ∈ G4 then a + b ∈ G4 .

• Associativity: The operation of addition is associative since addition of real numbers is

associative (as (R, +) is a group).

a + (b + c) = a + b + c = (a + b) + c

i.e. the order you add integers is irrelevant.

Since all four properties are true, then G4 is a group.

1.5 G5 = (M2 (R) \ {0}, · )

Here the set is all the 2 × 2 matrices whose entries are real numbers, excluding the all zero matrix,
i.e.  
0 0
0=
0 0
under the operation of multiplication “·”. Multiplication of two matrices is defined as:
     
a1,1 a1,2 b1,1 b1,2 a1,1 b1,1 + a1,2 b2,1 a1,1 b2,1 + a1,2 b2,2
· = (?)
a2,1 a2,2 b2,1 b2,2 a2,1 b1,1 + a2,2 b2,1 a2,1 b2,1 + a2,2 b2,2

Taking each property in turn:

• Identity: a ∈ G5 . Take  
1 0
e= ∈ G5
0 1
Then it is easy to see that
a+e=e+a=a

• Inverse: For every a ∈ G5 is there an inverse a−1 ∈ G5 of the form

 
−1 1 a2,2 −a1,2
a =
a1,1 a2,2 − a1,2 a2,1 −a2,1 a1,1

such that
a · a−1 = a−1 · a = 0 ?

Warning! But what if a1,1 a2,2 − a1,2 a2,1 = det(a) = 0? Then we have a divide-by-zero! Which
means not every element in G5 has an inverse, so G5 is not a group!

1.6 G6 = ({a ∈ M2 (R) where det(a) 6= 0}, · )

Here the set is all the 2 × 2 matrices whose entries are real numbers with non-zero determinant,
under the operation of multiplication “·”. Note that the zero matrix has zero determinant, so is
excluded anyway.
Taking each property in turn:

• Identity: As above, the identity is

 
1 0
e= ∈ G6
0 1

• Inverse: For every a ∈ G6 there is an inverse a−1 ∈ G6 of the form

 
−1 1 a2,2 −a1,2
a =
det(a) −a2,1 a1,1

so that
a · a−1 = a−1 · a = 0
Here it is impossible that det(a) = 0, so we are safe.
 • Closure: If you multiply two real numbers, you always get an real number (since (R \ {0}, ·)
is a group). Adding two matrices is in effect, adding their components. The components are
real, so their sum is real It is enough to state this, and conclude that when a, b ∈ G6 then
a · b ∈ G6 .

• Associativity: The operation of addition is associative since addition of real numbers is

associative (as (R, +) is a group).

a + (b + c) = a + b + c = (a + b) + c

i.e. the order you add integers is irrelevant.

Since all four properties are true, then G6 a group.

More examples of groups use things other than numbers or matrices. However the rules to be checked
are the exact same.

1.7 Permutations
1.8 Rotations

2 More Non-Groups
The following are not groups. Can you see why?

• (Z, · ) – the integers under multiplication

• (Z, −) – the integers under subtraction

• (Z, ÷) – the integers under division

• (R, −) – the integers under subtraction

• (R, ÷) – the integers under division

3 Answers to “More Non-Groups”
• (Z, · ) – no element has an inverse except the identity 1.

• (Z, −) – associativity rule broken

• (Z, ÷) – not closed, associativity rule broken

• (R, −) – associativity rule broken

• (R, ÷) – not closed ( 10 ∈

/ R), associativity rule broken