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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Chapter 8: Wireless, Mobile Computing and Mobile Commerce

Chapter Outline

8.1 Wireless Technologies

8.2 Wireless Computer Networks and Internet Access
8.3 Mobile Computing and Mobile Commerce
8.4 Pervasive Computing
8.5 Wireless Security

Learning Objectives

1. Identify advantages and disadvantages of each of the four main types of wireless transmission media.
2. Explain how businesses can use technology employed by short- range, medium-range, and long-
range networks, respectively.
3. Provide a specific example of how each of the five major m-commerce applications can benefit a
business.
4. Describe the Internet of Things and provide examples of how businesses can utilize each one.
5. Explain how the four major threats to wireless networks can damage a business.

Teaching Tips and Strategies

Wireless communications have become so ubiquitous, most students seldom think about it or the
implications. So they will, hopefully, not need to be told, “What’s in it for me?” Just about every student
has a personal computer with some type of Internet connection. Most of them also have a smartphones, so
they will also probably use some mobile applications other than just simple phone usage.

One of the first things they need to understand is the difference between wireless and mobile
communications. Explain why the term, mobile, refers to something that changes its location over time.
Also explain that wireless networks can be both mobile (Internet over cell phones) or fixed (WiFi).

I suggest starting the class by having students comparing the mobile applications they use. Then ask
them if there are any apps that they feel might not s well on a mobile device.

Then focus the discussion on location-based commerce. Ask them to think about what it might mean for
a businesses if they had access to their real-time location information. In other words, how would a
business have to transform them selves to satisfy a consumer demand for mobile applications? Then, lead
into a discussion of the benefits and drawbacks of mobile computing.

Given the privacy discussions that were taking place during 2013, start a discussion on privacy rights
associated with mobile computing, especially RFID. Some students will express that the government and
employers (and their parents) have no right to monitor their movements and location. This usually will
lead to a interesting class discussion. I sometimes will break the class into different groups and assign
them different perspectives. One point of view would be from the employer. I ask the students if you were
an employer of mobile workers (such as service technicians), would you want to pay for an employee to
run personal errands while on the job? The other perspective would be the employee’s. Should it be all
right to use company time and equipment to stop at the dry cleaners while on the job? When having this
discussion with students; try to remain impartial, at least at first. By remaining impartial it helps students

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to complete their thoughts on the benefits and drawbacks of mobile computing and related privacy
concerns.

BlackBoard/CMS

If your students are not using it already, have them download BlackBoard’s mobile application or the one
for the CMS you are using. (That is if there is one available.) Have them discuss the differences between
using the mobile app and accessing the browser-based version of BlackBoard or the CMS you are using.

I normally find a recent news article about mobile phone tracking and privacy to start an online
discussion.

Opening Case: Republic Wireless and Freedom-Pop Could Disrupt the Wireless Industry

1. Describe how Republic Wireless and FreedomPop can be disruptive to the major U.S. cellular service
providers.

ANSWER
Republic Wireless offers unlimited calls and text for $5 per month and unlimited data for an
additional $25. Their model is to use the customer’s WiFI connection for service. for service away
from the customer’s home, Republic rents capacity from Sprint for their customers to use.

FreedomPop sells refurbished phones with not contract. It gives away 500 megs of 4G of data per
month, plus unlimited texting and 200 anytime minutes, as well as unlimited calls to other
FreedomPop phones.

Both of these business models are contrary to those of the major cellular carries in the U.S.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

2. What actions should the major cellular service providers take to combat Republic and FreedomPop’s
business models?

ANSWER
- Provide non-contract phones. (during the summer and fall of 2105, some of the major carriers
announced that they would being selling non-contract phones.)
- Let customers use Voice-Over-IP via the customer’s own WiFi connect, when then they are at
home.

Your students can surely

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

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IT’s About Business: 8.1 Skybox Imaging Provides Commercial Images from Earth’s Orbit

1. Describe other possible applications of Skybox Imaging (not mentioned in the case).

ANSWER
Examples could include…
- extent of damage and direction of movement of a forest fire
- water stored in area lakes
- locating lost vehicles, aircraft, and if the resolution is fine enough, people

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

2. Why might the U.S. government object to Skybox Imaging’s business? Provide specific examples in
your answer.

ANSWER
The U.S. government might object to SkyBox’s business because the images could potentially be
used to spy on secret U.S. government facilities, allied troop movements overseas, etc…

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

3. Might other nations object to Skybox Imaging’s business? If so, which ones, and why?

ANSWER
Other governments might object for similar reasons as the U.S. government, especially governments
who are not allies of the U.S.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

4. Describe other applications for Urthecast satellites.

ANSWER
Urthecast could work with promoters of outdoor concerts or “destination” events to obtain satellite
pictures.

College and professional teams wanting satellite images of the stadiums or events. Possibly the
marching band doing the halftime show.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Bloom’s Category: Comprehension

AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

IT’s About Business: 8.2 A Wi-Fi Network Provides Communications at the 2014 Winter Olympic
Games

1. Describe why wireless communications were critical to the success of the 2014 Winter Olympic
Games. Provide specific examples to support your answer.

ANSWER
- the people involved with or attending the games would have with them an unprecedented number
of wireless devices.
- there was the need to combine the cable TV network with the data network.
- wireless communications made it easier to deploy full Internet access across 11 competition venues
and 3 Olympic villages, plus multiple media, celebration, and data centers.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. What other potential problems did Avaya have to consider that were not mentioned in this case?
Provide specific examples to support your answer.

ANSWER
- Useable and stable electrical power
- Back up/emergency power (UPS and generators)
- Cooling (AC) for its equipment and data centers
- Transportation for personnel around and between venues
- Living accommodations, especially during the 18-months prior to the start of the games.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8. /Learning Objective
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

IT’s About Business: 8.3 Apple’s iBeacon

1. What other uses for iBeacon can you think of?

ANSWER
Other possible applications might include…
- Automatically taking attendance of students who enter a classroom.
- Checking out books from a library where the user is a member
- Access security (combining it with other features, of course)
- Unlocking car doors and starting a car without the use of a key or key fob.

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Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

2. Other than privacy concerns, what are other possible disadvantages of the iBeacon app? Provide
specific examples to support your answer.

ANSWER
Other potential privacy concerns might include…
- with the right equipment, a hacker might be able to access information on your phone
- hacker tracking your location
- a store storing and sharing your personal shopping habits and tracking information.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

IT’s About Business: 8.4 Telemedicine at the Miami Children’s Hospital

1. Describe the advantages and the disadvantages of the iPad mobile app for patients. Do the same for
medical carts and medical kiosks.

ANSWER
Advantages of iPad mobile app for patients
- Speeds check-in
- Doctors have access to all the patient’s records

Advantages of medical carts for patients

- patients have access to a health professional in a specialty not normally available in their area
- two-way video communication with a health professional
- real-time transmission transmission of health information (blood pressure, temp, etc) to online
doctor

Advantages of medical kiosks for patients

- patients have access to a health professional in a specialty not normally available in their area
- two-way video communication with a health professional
- real-time transmission transmission of health information (blood pressure, temp, etc) to online
doctor
- Access to a health professional at a convenient location

Disadvantages of iPad mobile app for patients

- Some patients, mainly older, may have a problem using an iPad
- Physical control of individual iPads

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Disadvantages of medical carts for patients

- less fact-to-face/personal interaction with doctor for patient
- costs for patients

Disadvantages of medical kiosks for patients

- less fact-to-face/personal interaction with doctor for patient
- costs for patients

Students should be able to list many more..

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

2. Describe the advantages and the disadvantages of the iPad mobile app for Miami Children’s Hospital.
Do the same for medical carts and medical kiosks.

ANSWER
Advantages of iPad mobile app for MCH
- Speed of patient check in
- Sourcing of the entry of patient information to the patient themselves
- Elimination of paper patient records
- Enables MCH staff access to the most current information on each patient

Advantages of medical carts for MCH

- Opens potential new markets in the U.S. and overseas
- Provides a means for MCH physicians to be two places at one time.

Advantages of medical kiosks for MCH

- Opens potential new markets in the U.S. and overseas
- Provides a means for MCH physicians to be two places at one time.

Disadvantages of iPad mobile app for MCH

- training MCH staff to help those patients who are resistant to technology
- potential patient information security issues

Disadvantages of medical carts for MCH

- logistics of maintaining the proprietary hardware
- Having and maintaining the needed high speed Internet connection
- potential local patient information security issues which may be different that those in U.S.

Disadvantages of medical kiosks for MCH

- logistics of maintaining the proprietary hardware

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

- Having and maintaining the needed high speed Internet connection

- ensuring the is local staff that can maintain equipment
- training local health professionals to use it
- potential patient information security issues which may be different that U.S.

Students should be able to list many more..

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

IT’s About Business: 8.5 Marks & Spenser Embraces RFID

1. Describe how RFID technology can generate increased customer satisfaction.

ANSWER
The use of RFID can increase customer satisfaction by enabling the business to better track inventory,
enabling them to have a higher level of inventory control. Customers also have access to detailed
information about the products. If the RFID system is linked to the store’s POS system, it will speed
customer checkout.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. What are potential disadvantages to implementing RFID technology in a retailer such as Marks &
Spencer?

ANSWER
Potential disadvantages include…
- buy-in by suppliers to use/attack the tags to their products
- RFID tag design consistency problems as other retailers adopt the technology.
- Students should be asked to suggest others.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

3. Why did Marks & Spencer initially deploy RFID technology on a limited basis? In your opinion, was
this the correct strategy? Why or why not? Be specific.

ANSWER
They initially deployed RFID on a limited basis to see how well it worked in one area of their
operation.

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Have your students express their individual opinion if this was the correct approach.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

Before You Go On … Review Questions

Section 8.1 …

1. Describe the most common types of wireless devices.

ANSWER
• Pagers – one way wireless devices
• PDA – personal digital assistant, a small handheld wireless device.
• GPS – global position system, a satellite-based tracking system that enables the determination of
a GPS device’s location.
• Smartphone – Internet-enabled cell phones that can support mobile applications.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1
Bloom’s Category: Knowledge
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. Describe the various types of transmission media.

ANSWER
Microwave, satellite and infrared are line of sight methods while radio signals travel through the air
and can pass through walls.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1
Bloom’s Category: Knowledge
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

Section 8.2 …

1. What is Bluetooth? What is a WLAN?

ANSWER
• Bluetooth is a device used to create small wireless radio-based personal networks for up to 8
devices within 10 meters on low power.
• Wireless local area networks are local area networks without the cables used to transmit and
receive data via radio waves.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Knowledge
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

2. Describe Wi-Fi, cellular service, and WiMAX.

ANSWER
Wireless Fidelity - known as Wi-Fi.
802.11a transmits up to 54 Mbps within 10-30 meters
802.11b transmits up to 11 Mbps within 30-50
802.11g transmits up to 54 Mbps and is compatible with 802.11b

Major benefits are low cost and the ability to provide simple Internet access.

Cellular services - communicate with radio antenna placed within adjacent areas called cells. It uses
digital signals and can transmit voice and data up to 384 Kbps when device is used while walking,
128 Kbps while in a car, and up to 2Mbps when device is in a fixed location.

WiMax - worldwide interoperability for microwave access has a range of up to 31 miles compared to
300 feet for Wi-Fi and 30 feet for Bluetooth. It has a transfer rate of 75 Mbps.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

Section 8.3 …

1. What are the major drivers of mobile computing?

ANSWER
• Widespread availability of mobile devices
• No need for a PC
• The “Cell Phone Culture”
• Declining Prices
• Bandwidth Improvement

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. Describe mobile portals and voice portals.

ANSWER
Mobile portals - A customer interaction channel that aggregates content and services for mobile users.
Services include news, sports, e-mail, entertainment, travel information, restaurant and event
information, games, TV and movie listings, community services, and stock trading.

Voice Portals – A Web site with an audio interface. Voice portals are not Web sites in the normal
sense, but rather are phone numbers which connect to a Web site where you can request information
verbally. The system finds the information and then translates it into a computer generated voice
reply. An example is 511, the travel-information line developed by Tellme.com.

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

3. Describe wireless financial services.

ANSWER
The services provide a convenient way to transact business regardless of where they are or what time
it is. These services include banking, wireless payments and micro-payments, wireless wallets, bill-
payment services, brokerage services, and money transfers.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

4. Discuss some of the major intra-business wireless applications.

ANSWER
• There are applications which help owners of rental vehicles, commercial transport and heavy
equipment fleets. They can determine location of the vehicles and control messages which are
sent to and from vehicles.
• Insurance companies use wireless digital cameras to take pictures at accident scenes and transmit
to processing centers.
• Mystery customers who file reports after evaluating locations of a national restaurant franchise
use hand-held devices to file reports.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

Section 8.4 …

1. Define the Internet of Things and RFID.

ANSWER
The “Internet of Things” is invisible “everywhere computing” that are embedded in the objects
around us, including the floor, lights, cars, the washing machine, cell phones, our clothes, etc.

RFID is the technology which allows manufacturers to attach tags with antennae and computer chips
on goods and then track their movement through radio signals. This technology was developed to
replace barcodes.

Wireless sensor networks are networks of interconnected, battery-powered, wireless sensors called
motes that are placed into the physical environment. The motes collect data from many points over
an extended space. Each mote contains processing, storage, and radio frequency sensors and
antennae. This technology enables more accurate information to be gathered.

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. Provide two examples (other than those mentioned in this section) of how the Internet of things
benefits organizations (Public sector, private sector, for-profit, or not-for-profit).

ANSWER
- Pet owners can have RFID chips placed inside their pets to help find them when they are lost
- Parents can place RFID tags in their kids cloths or on a bracelet to help locate them if they become
lost
- Universities can place RFID chips placed on student or employee IDs to take attendance or track
employee work hours

Students should be able to come up with more ideas…

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

3. Provide two specific business uses of RFID technology.

ANSWER
Replace Bar Codes and store additional information that can uniquely identify an item or groups of
items.

Embed in credit cards for security and protection against identity theft.

Embed in ID cards to confirm card identity and validity, and for controlling area access

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

Section 8.5 …

1. Describe the four major threats to the security of wireless networks.

ANSWER
The four threats are rogue access points, war driving/walking, eaves dropping and RF jamming.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.5 /Learning Objective 5
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

2. Which of these threats is the most dangerous for a business? Which is the most dangerous for an
individual? Support your answers.

ANSWER
Threats most dangerous for a business are war driving and RF jamming while rogue access points are
most effective with public hotspots and eavesdropping is effective for both business and individual
networks.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.5 /Learning Objective 5
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

Discussion Questions

1. Given that you can lose a cell phone as easily as a wallet, which do you feel is a more secure way of
carrying your personal data? Support your answer.

ANSWER
There are various, including requiring a password/passcode to access information on the device to
encrypting all the data your have stored on your phone. Have your students for their ideas and
opinions.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. If mobile computing is the next wave of technology, would you ever feel comfortable with handing a
waiter or waitress your cell phone to make a payment at a restaurant the way you currently hand over
your credit or debit card? Why or why not?

ANSWER
You probably have a few students who have or are working in a restaurant. Start the discussion by
asking for their opinions. Then open it up to the rest of your class.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Comprehension
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

3. What happens if you lose your NFC-enabled smartphone or it is stolen? How do you protect your
personal information?

ANSWER
It depends on how security you have made your smartphone. Has it been set up to require a
passcode/password to access apps, etc. Ask your students to provide their opinions.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Bloom’s Category: Comprehension

AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

4. In your opinion, is the mobile (or digital) wallet a good idea? Why or why not?

ANSWER
Ask your students for their opinions.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

5. Discuss how m-commerce can expand the reach of e-business.

ANSWER
In the traditional computing environment, users have to come to a computer in order to utilize its
applications. The need to be linked by wires to computing resources limited their usefulness to
people who must be mobile while on the job. M-commerce is a natural extension of e-business, only
done in a wireless environment. M-commerce serves the needs of an increasingly mobile work force
and consumer population.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

6. Discuss how mobile computing can solve some of the problems of the digital divide.

ANSWER
With wireless devices becoming cheaper and cheaper, and the individual’s ability to take those
devices to locations where they can connect, often for free, it enables the user who may not have
access to a computer at home, to be able to use the devices to connect to the Internet and to gain the
benefits that otherwise would not be available.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Synthesis
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

7. List three to four major advantages of wireless commerce to consumers and explain what benefits
they provide to consumers.

ANSWER
• Access to expertise: For example, medical service providers in remote locations could
communicate real-time with specialists in other places to provide specialized consultations.
Consumers would benefit due to better access to specialized expertise without the inconvenience
or expense of traveling to a different location for the consultation.
• Access to information: For example, mobile portals provide consumers access to a personalized
set of content and services regardless of location. This enables the consumer to always have
specified information available regardless of location.

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

• Customized advertising: For example, location-based advertising can deliver information and
coupons to inform consumers about shops, malls, and restaurants close to their current location.
• Access to services: For example, wireless banking enables consumers to carry out various
financial transactions from any location, further eliminating the need to go to a bank or an ATM
machine to carry out needed banking business.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

8. Discuss the ways in which Wi-Fi is being used to support mobile computing and m-commerce.
Describe the ways in which Wi-Fi is affecting the use of cellular phones for m-commerce.

ANSWER
Wi-Fi is the technical standard underlying most of today’s wireless local area networks (WLANs). A
mobile computing device can connect to the Internet easily from public assess points called hotspots.
Mobile computing and m-commerce applications can be delivered easily in this environment at
adequate communication speeds. Wi-Fi is reducing the need for wireless wide area networks
(WWANs) based on cellular technology.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

9. You can use location-based tools to help you find your car or the closest gas station. However, some
people see location-based tools as an invasion of privacy. Discuss the pros and cons of location-based
tools.

ANSWER
The benefits of location-based tools include the ability to request and receive information that is
tailored to your exact location. The concerns about this capability arise from the fact that “someone”
can obtain information about your exact location and movements and could use that information in
illicit ways.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

10. Discuss the benefits of telemetry in health care for the elderly.

ANSWER
The devices that are available for seniors to wear around their neck or wrist are examples of
telemetry. This is valuable for seniors who need emergency assistance after a fall or when there is
some other medical problem.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis

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Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

11. Discuss how wireless devices can help people with disabilities.

ANSWER
Sensors which assist the disabled with the ability to communicate with their computer and other
household devices are helpful in allowing them to interface with their environment when they
otherwise would not be able to accomplish even basic activities.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

12. Some experts say that Wi-Fi is winning the battle with 3G cellular service. Others disagree. Discuss
both sides of the argument, and support each one.

ANSWER
Students will discuss this in terms of speed, distance and cost and why one of these is preferred over
the other.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

13. Which of the applications of the Internet of Things do you think are likely to gain the greatest market
acceptance over the next few years? Why?

ANSWER
While student answers will vary, it is likely that applications that add convenience without violating
privacy will be the ones to gain market acceptance. For example, an application that provides
information about an object for diagnostic and repair purposes would be useful so that the consumer
could arrange for repair before the product fails.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

Problem-Solving Activities

1. Investigate commercial applications of voice portals. Visit several vendors, for example,
MICROSOFT and Nuance.. What capabilities and applications do these vendors offer?

ANSWER
Students will research voice portals and report their findings.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.1 /Learning Objective 1

Copyright ©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. IM 8-15

Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Bloom’s Category: Analysis

AACSB Category: Analytic

2. Using a search engine, try to determine whether there are any commercial Wi-Fi hotspots in your
area.

ANSWER
Students will discuss use of handhelds, laptops, etc. after locating WI-Fi spots in their area.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8. /Learning Objective
Bloom’s Category: Application
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

3. Examine how new data capture devices such as RFID tags help organizations accurately identify and
segment their customers for activities such as targeted marketing. Browse the Web and develop five
potential new applications for RFID technology, not listed in this chapter. What issues would arise if
a country’s laws mandated that such devices be embedded in everyone’s body as a national
identification system?

ANSWER
Students should enjoy researching this topic and describe these wearable devices.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

4. Investigate commercial uses of GPS. Start with http://www.neigps.com/. Can some of the consumer-
oriented products be used in industry? Prepare a report on your findings.

ANSWER
Students will investigate and list products that can cross over between the end consumer and industry
markets.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

5. Access www.bluetooth.com. Examine the types of products being enhanced with Bluetooth
technology. Present two of these products to the class and explain how they are enhanced by
Bluetooth technology.

ANSWER
Various categories of products are listed in the web site. Students will investigate and prepare a
report on two of these products. Students also examine any drawbacks to having Bluetooth used in
the product.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2

Copyright ©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. IM 8-16

Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Bloom’s Category: Analysis

AACSB Category: Analytic

6. Explore www.nokia.com. Prepare a summary of the types of mobile services and applications Nokia
currently supports and plans to support in the future.

ANSWER
Students will investigate and prepare a report.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

7. Enter www.ibm.com. Search for wireless e-business. Research the resulting stories to determine the
types of wireless capabilities and applications IBM’s software and hardware supports. Describe some
of the ways these applications have helped specific businesses and industries.

ANSWER
Students are to look into the published case studies in the ibm.com web site under “SOLUTIONS”
and find some examples of cases that they can share with the class.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.2 /Learning Objective 2
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

8. Research the status of 3G and 4G cellular service by visiting various links. Prepare a report on the
status of 3G and 4G based on your findings.

ANSWER
Students will investigate and prepare a report.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

9. Enter Pitney-Bowes Business Insight (www.pbinsight.com). Click on MapInfo Professional, then

click on the Resources tab, then on the Demos tab. Look for the location-based services demos. Try
all the demos. Summarize your findings.

ANSWER
Students will investigate and prepare a report.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

10. Enter www.packetvideo.com. Examine the demos and products, and list their capabilities.

Copyright ©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. IM 8-17

Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

ANSWER
PV provides software to deliver mobile media services. PV's software gives users greater access and
control over their media experience. The CORE product provides a universal structure for mobile
multimedia applications. MediaFusion is a white-label client-server software application that enables
rapid development and launch on-device portals for rich media services.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

11. Enter www.onstar.com. What types of fleet services does OnStar provide? Are these any different
from the services OnStar provides to individual car owners? (Play the movie.)

ANSWER
Your students will play the movie and report their experiences.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

12. Access various search engines to find articles about the Internet of Things. What is the “Internet of
Things?” What types of technologies are necessary to support it? Why is it important?

ANSWER
By embedding communications technology in everyday things in order to increase the reach and
access of the Internet can be increased to many remote areas that do not have Internet access
infrastructure. By embedding Internet access in common devices like a fridge or oven, it is more
likely to support access in remote areas.

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.4 /Learning Objective 4
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

Closing Case: Has Facebook Solved the Mobile Ad Problem?

1. Explain why mobile ads are so effective on Facebook. Provide specific examples to support your
answer.

ANSWER
Facebook integrates paid (sponsored) advertising into each user’s news feed.

Mobile ads allowed makers of mobile apps to encourage users to install their games or programs. It
did not require a like or other social action to create it.

Mobile ads take up more space on the screen than desktop ads.

Copyright ©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. IM 8-18

Introduction to Information Systems, 6th Edition Instructor’s Manual

Level: Easy
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Reflective Thinking

2. You are accessing Facebook on your smartphone or tablet. Would ads placed directly into your news
feed bother you? Why or why not?

ANSWER
Have your students respond to this question with their own opinions.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

3. You are accessing Facebook from your desktop computer. Would ads placed directly into your news
feed bother you? Why or why not?

ANSWER
Have your students respond to this question with their own opinions.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

4. If there is a difference between your answers to questions 2 and 3 above, explain why.

ANSWER
Have your students respond to this question with their own opinions.

Level: Medium
Section/Learning Objective: Section 8.3 /Learning Objective 3
Bloom’s Category: Analysis
AACSB Category: Analytic

Copyright ©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. IM 8-19

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Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface, the
design which is plastic in character incidental to method of working, should
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surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is Light, both direct and
reflected. Surface interest is the result of imparting by chasing various
textures in striations or matt.

No. 278. Wood Carving from

Fontainbleau. Early French Renaissance.

Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,

leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.
 The method of working is simple, entailing
manipulation from the face of the metal only, and
the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
being set back in the texturing. This treatment is
only suitable where the ornamented area is
enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear
in relief, the result of raising from the back; and
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Metal, Cast
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 No. 281. Repoussé Work.
A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different textures of
ground.
B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and matt tools
on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.
(Photo of A. V & A Museum).

pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the

character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference when the
necessary finishing is by turning or filing.
Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except in
Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In common
work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or riffles and
by chasing the more elaborate details.

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comparative flat surface enriched by
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As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the

 No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.
A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver,
Indian.
B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.
C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.
D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.
E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.
F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold,
Indian.

character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is the
result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired feeling, the
pattern being merely a means to the end.
Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest resulting
from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of proportionate importance
as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is subject to the ordinary
conditions of Light and Shade.
 CHAPTER VIII

MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM

T
RADITIONAL ornament is replete with forms and details that were
originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment
this was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their
æsthetic value.
Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in the
Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory, sacrifice and
religious observance.
Early Symbolic Ornament
It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
therefore esteemed.
These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line, are
symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the periodical
inundation of the Nile.
The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.
The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief was
that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.
Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the general
community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is to be
deplored.
A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however
is fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which represents
the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the operation of
venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the respective
bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to blood-letting, the other
for final bindings.
Customs
The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
survival—the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of a
truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery—the latter
of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that one can
stand unprotected.
The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient times, if a
stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it denoted a declaration
of war; but if carried with the point behind, he came in friendship and
peace.
There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as
to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the decadence
of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest, because it has
no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.
Origin of Mythology
Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
how they affected his personal comfort.
The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.
Nature Myths
Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of natural
phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural. Inducing a
belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in future existence. With
this belief these aspects were eventually invested with personality.
An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light
and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.
A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who
effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.
Light and Darkness
Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting.
The Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all
his children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
Grave), which three Time cannot consume.
An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except Zeus,
for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.
On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being that
of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being the
sunrise.
Melanesian Myth
An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and his
brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and setting forth in
search, was successful in his quest. On his return he told his brothers to sit
quite still, and when they felt something in their eyes to take no notice but
keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep. When Night had lasted long enough,
Qat took a slab of red obsidian and cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A
tradition reminiscent of the “dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery,
though the slab of red obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its
suggestion.
Darkness as a Devouring Monster
In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant influence
or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun, e.g., the
Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by Apollo, and in
Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by darkness.
 Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according
to tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.
Season Myths
In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god was
killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of Odin,
everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was forbidden to injure
Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was made into an arrow and
shot at random. It effected his death, but by general request of the gods, he
was restored to life.
Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the tradition
of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her mother,
Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of Orpheus
and Eurydice.
Sun Myths
Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the Sun,
or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.
Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing the
morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.
Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his daily
course.
Belief in Natural Phenomena
It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day. Thus
we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and intelligence.
We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the Sea treacherous,
the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also customary to speak of
the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of the sea and the “mouth” of
a river or a cave.
Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile” or
the sky “threatens.”
These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
consciousness—a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
assigning different deities to the various elements.
Greek and Roman Deities
In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six
goddesses.
Greek. Gods. Roman.
Zeus. The air or the living one (king) Jupiter.
Apōllon. The Sun God. Apollo.
Ares. The War God. Mars.
Hermes. The Messenger. Mercury.
Poseidon. The Sea God. Neptune.
Hephaistos. The Smith. Vulcan.
Goddesses.
Hera. Queen. Juno.
Demeter. Tillage. Ceres.
Artemis. Moon-Hunting. Diana.
Athenē. Wisdom. Minerva.
Aphrodite. Love and Beauty. Venus.
Hestĭa. Home life. Vesta.
These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as follows:
Dionȳsus. The God of Wine. Bacchus.
Eros. The love lad. Cupid.
 Plutōn. God of the Inferno. Pluto.
Kronos. Time. Saturn.
Scandinavian Mythology
In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first
created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold, nourished
by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he slept a man
and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet, from whom
was formed the race of Frost Giants.
Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks; the
brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a wall of
defence against the Giants.
As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly hills
between the Earth and the Rainbow.
The other gods or Asa were:
Thor. God of Thunder and War.
Tyr. God of Wisdom.
Baldur. God of Sun.
Bragi. God of Eloquence.
Vidar. God of Silence.
Hodar. The Blind.
Harnod. The Messenger (divine intelligence)
Odur.
Loki. God of Mischief.
All these were sons of Odin—the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
Odin was Gladsheim—that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”
The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits of
warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.
 Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.
The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash tree
Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one to the
Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a fountain
of wonderful virtue.
In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four stags;
lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the squirrel
Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife between the
serpent and the eagle at the top.
Rising and Setting Symbolised
The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the setting.
Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye at
the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the setting
sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was dedicated,
symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with two horns on a
stem rising from her head.
The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of the
Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the death of
Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.
Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the Latmian
Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.
Winds Personified
That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo or
Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind, and
lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were Notus,
(South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East), Volturnus
(South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).
The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away
till only her voice remained.
Predestination
To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was no
personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief in
predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of Orestes and
Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return of Ulysses from
Troy.
The Fates
The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were three—
Clotho, who held the distaff—Lachesis, who spun the thread of life and
Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was ended.
Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
between life and death.
The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an atmosphere
of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came near. Their
names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm) indicate that
they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind. Equally arbitrary
were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there were likewise three, their
names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood), Alectro (implacable), and
Megæra (disputatious).
Propitiation and Sacrifice
Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the natural
outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of actual
occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous conditions.
In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story of
Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the most
beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next twelve months.
This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was deferred till she reached
womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet arrived at Aulis on its way to
Troy. Calchas declared this would be wind-bound as long as the vow
remained unfulfilled, but Artemis interposed at the last moment by spiriting
Iphigenia away from the altar and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.
A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
country and to appease the offended deity.
Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition of
Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of Troy.
The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed, and in
consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.
Early Burial Customs
The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have souls.
It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their ministrations
in the future life.
Taboo
The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the present
day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which means
“consecrated” or “set apart.”
It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.
Roman Lares
The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares
were the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in the
Lararium or shrine.
 There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
streets and roads.
This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of sacrifice
in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom modified in
later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the present day in
burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone in
public buildings.
Typical Legend
Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated traditions of
demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some difficult problem in
design or construction for the solution of which the architect or builder
enters into the usual compact with the evil one, the terms being that the
latter party to the contract shall take possession of the first living being that
enters into or crosses the structure.
Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other
animal being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
instance greater than his vanity.
Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.
With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
and Moon, as it announced the hours.
The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
be sacrificed.
Early Spiritual Belief
Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of being—
physical and spiritual.
In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to wake
the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be unable to
return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and come is evidenced
in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and other forms of tombs.
Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics
Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by devils
which would be released by making a hole in the head. This treatment was
apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive instruments and
ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could hardly have been a
pleasant experience.
The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life
through the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a
superstition that it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord
before death occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.
Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
chamber.
Prohibition
A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act or
question.
The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife of
Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition that
Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.
The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by Aëdonius,
King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty. Orpheus
obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled; therefore he lost
her a second time.
The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar in
idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and devotion.
As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in abandonment.
 A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to
visit her on that day.
Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.
Belief in Magical Qualities.
The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes
invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus and
Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer with
the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
Iceland.
The Shirt of Nessus
More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition, Nessus
the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by Hercules
for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to Dejanira,
assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love her
exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on wearing it
was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove the garment, he
immolated himself on a funeral pyre.
Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
Queen Morgan la Fay.
Swords
Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its origin
in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later improvements
were such an advance that they suggested supernatural origin; e.g., the
sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung or Gram (literally
“grief”).
The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother smith,
cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the cut was
so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he attempted
to move, when he fell in two pieces.
Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered the
wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing the
sheath, though he retained the sword.
Invulnerability
Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his mother
Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he received
his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.
Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that sprang
from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa with
the Promethean unguent.
Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden leaf
had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his death,
being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.
This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive
armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be unprotected.
Belief in Numbers
Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
significance, e.g., “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of Beginning,
Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of Trinity is Triad,
and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.
That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to be
under the rule of three gods—Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and Pluto
(Hades). The first has three thunderbolts—Neptune, the Trident, and Pluto,
Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.
Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.
Muses
The Muses were three times three as follows:
Calliope. Epic Poetry.
Clio. History.
Melpomene. Tragedy.
Euterpe. Lyric Poetry.
Urania. Astronomy.
Terpsichore. Dancing.
Polyhegmnia. Religious service.
Erato. Erotic Poetry—Geometry.
Thalia. Comedy.
The world is compounded of three elements—Earth, Water and Air.
Man also is three—Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of Nature—
Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.
There are three Christian Graces—Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.
The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World—the Winds—
the Gospels—the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.
“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.
“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages in
the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the sleepers
of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the world.
Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc.
Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the Deities.
The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the
Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter; the
Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was given to
the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic games had a
wreath of wild olive—of green parsley in the Nemean games, and of dried
parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.
The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of
prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.
The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace, an
olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating a
peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art is
generally borne by the martyr—indicating victory over Death. The Lily—
which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of Eve as she
went forth from Paradise—is the emblem of Chastity, Innocence and Purity
and is associated with representations of the Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten
Lily, which it was customary to plant on graves, was once white, the
tradition being that Persephone, daughter of Demeter, delighted to wander
about the flowering meads of Sicily. One springtime she tripped over the
meadows, wreathed her head with wild lilies and, throwing herself on the
leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of the infernal regions, fell in love with her
and carried her to the nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed
to a golden yellow.
In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and represents
original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the Pomegranate
(generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the symbol of the future
life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are symbols of Christ, and
the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.
The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion—the leaf
symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords or
whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails; the fleshy
threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx, the nimbus.
The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and the flower keeping
open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.
Sacred Animals
Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag to
Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to Isis; the
eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the Lares; the
horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to Minerva; the
bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and the lion to
Vulcan.
The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of the
Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead, and so
remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it receives life.
Evangelist Symbols
Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.
Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
man.
Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle—the former
because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple, and the
latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the divinity of the
Logos.
In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on fountains.
The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual inundations of
the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.
The Serpent
The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety,
and, considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that Æsculapius
assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.
In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery dragon,
raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.
The Dragon
The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the source
of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief thereby slew a
dragon.
 The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also a
poetic allusion to flood or inundation.
The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion to
the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance of the
city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille (waterspout)
which lived in the Seine.
Poetic License in Tradition
In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
occurrences have been handed down—in many cases completely
transformed—by reason of this poetic license; e.g., the legend of Marsyas
the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest of skill and
being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.
The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that goddess, still
discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the respective superiority
of the instruments—the Dorian mode in the worship of Apollo employing
the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in the worship of Cebele the flute,
the reeds of which grew on the banks of the river Marsyas.
Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos. All
but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were punished
in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly in sieves from
a deep well.
The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the Argives
to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The soil of Argos,
being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.
The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of
Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog—both slain by
Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who reigned
over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two tribes.
Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains—a Greek myth based on the
peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the
Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
two ships which acted as supporters.
A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited the
wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to defray the
cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.
Animals in Christian Art
The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on
monuments at the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and
at the feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog
appears on the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.
Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:
The Ant. Prudence.
” Ape. Malice, lust and cunning.
” Ass. Sobriety.
” Asp. Christ, or Christian Faith.
” Bee. Industry.
” Camel. Submission.
” Cock. Vigilance.
” Fox. Fraud and cunning.
” Hog. Impurity.
” Lamb. Innocence.
” Leopard. Sin.
” Ox. Pride.
” Dragon, Serpent, Swine. Satan and his crew.
” Lamb.
” Pelican. -Symbols of Christ.
” Unicorn.
The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted carrying a
banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from its breast
caught in a chalice.
 The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement.
It is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of its
breast.
The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred years, is
the symbol of the Resurrection.
The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.
The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life with the
fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is occasionally
suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in general shape.
Association of Human and Animal Qualities
Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
association of qualities—animal and human; and probably had their origin
in an early belief in Totemism.
Totemism
Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the belief that
to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous, resulting in the
transference of timidity to the consumer.
Cannibalism
The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.
The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage or
mentality.
The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
protection or menace.
The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.
Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as
hovering, the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element
denotes Intelligence, and bird claws—Ferocity.
The Sphinx
The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally female)
and symbolises Intelligence and Power.
The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different meaning, that
of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the tradition of the
Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her destruction was
accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that had resulted fatally for
his predecessors.
Assyrian Winged Monsters
The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the wings
suggesting mobility or ever-present.
The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the ears.
The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth flames.
From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.
The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and the
snake tail the morass at the foot.
The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and
serpent tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of a
lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted issuing from
the mouth.
Pegasus
Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the
Chimeræ, also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of
poetic inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with
the chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.
The Harpy
In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and ferocity,
and was the personification of sudden events.
Sirens
Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers) of
whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They symbolised
the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure their victims by
their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to entrance Ulysses, they were
doomed to destroy themselves.
The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion to their
musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing harps or lutes.
The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean. The
Dolphin has the same significance.
Pan
A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
displayed in creation and pervading all things.
Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.
The Nymphs
To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the
forest trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of such
chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.
Centaur
 The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was
an embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
entertained as guests.
The Circle
The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that of
Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its employment
as the crown, orb and nimbus.
In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the Assyrian
version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string substituted for the
asps.
The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and
Authority, not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated
in pagan times.
It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of the three
persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre, and sometimes
is triangular in form.
The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or less
ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is sometimes used
to envelop the whole figure.
Symbols of the Trinity
Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.
The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning nor
end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.
The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift this
was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is preserved
in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the tests of
strength.
The Wand a Symbol of Authority
Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a form
which is still retained in the official mace.
The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to reward or
punish.
The Hand
The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome—
two joined hands signifying concord.
Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
from the fingers in token of divine Grace.
The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to the
tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land in Ireland,
and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung it ashore.
The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in harmonious
accord.
The Caduceus
The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which the
serpents twined in peaceful amity.
The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is employed
as an emblem of commerce.
Thyrsus
 A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with ivy
leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears in the form
of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion to the Greek
custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine) with the new wine
to make it keep.
It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a
successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with branches, as
in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone being suggestive
of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities took place at night.
The Trident
The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use, are
sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.
The Cross
Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for ornamental
purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred symbol. It also
occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it symbolised the four
cardinal points.
Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life generally.
There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
extends equally over the four quarters of the world.
The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
Christian virtues.
The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when
it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops at
Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.
The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter X,
and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.
 The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T—frequently used in Byzantine
representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent was
uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the sacrifice of
the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.
The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes the
form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed in the
centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.
In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more suggestive of
voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical suffering belongs to a
later period.
It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St. Peter’s
being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his execution.
The Pastoral Staff
The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a curving
head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both being
indicative of authority.
Symbols of Martyrdom
Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of Triumph
over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of violent death,
or by other implements of execution. These are represented in conjunction
with the individual martyr or saint, as attributes and as a means of
identification.
As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as the
crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear, lantern,
thirty pieces of silver, etc.
Symbolism of Gems, etc.
In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond—Invulnerable
Faith, the Sardonyx—Power, the Sapphire—Hope, Gold represents Power
or Glory, and Silver—Purity.
Black represents Grief or Death, Blue—Hope and Divine
Contemplation, pale blue—Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene
conscience, Green—Faith, Gladness, pale green—Baptism, Grey—
Tribulation, Purple—Justice or Royalty, Red—Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet
—Fervour, and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet—Penitence, and
White—Purity, Temperance and Innocence.
Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a mere
shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a pilgrim, by
whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or form of spoon.
Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as ascending, the
significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An earlier signification
in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.
Masks
Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable
to the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.
The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the three
Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of Athenē. As a
punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the aspect of which was
so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed to stone. A fate to
which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her reflection in the
burnished shield of Perseus.
The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise that
the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired. The
horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
accompanies the representations of Ceres.
Symbols of Time
Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of Death,
which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe the
sickle would be more appropriate.