CHAPTER - 3 (1)

Chemical Compounds
 CONTENTS (2)

3-1. Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas

3-2. The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds

3-3. The Composition of Chemical Compounds

3-4. Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing Chemical Compounds

3-5. Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds

3-6. Names and Formulas of Organic Compounds

3-1. Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas (3)
Molecular Compounds
Ø A molecular compound is made up of discrete units called molecules, which typically
consist of a small number of nonmetal atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Ø Molecular compounds are represented by chemical formulas, symbolic representations
that, at minimum, indicate
Ø the elements present
Ø the relative number of atoms of each element.
Ø In the formula for water, the constituent elements are denoted by their symbols. The
relative numbers of atoms are indicated by subscripts. Where no subscript is written, the
number 1 is understood.
 Molecular Compounds (4)
Ø An empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound; it shows the types of
atoms present and their relative numbers.
Ø A molecular formula is based on an actual molecule of a compound. In some cases, the
empirical and molecular formulas are identical, such as for formaldehyde. In other cases,
the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.
Ø A structural formula shows the order in which atoms are bonded together in a molecule
and by what types of bonds.
Standard Color Scheme (5)
 Some Organic and Inorganic Molecules (6)
H 2O 2 CH3CH2Cl P4O10

CH3CH(OH)CH3 HCO2H
 Ionic Compounds (7)
Ø Chemical combination of a metal and a nonmetal usually results in an ionic compound.

Ø Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to form charged species called
ions.

Ø Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic compounds.

Ø An ionic compound is made up of positive and negative ions joined together by

electrostatic forces of attraction.

Ø Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively charged ions called cations.

Ø Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively charged ions called anions.
 Sodium Chloride (8)
The simplest formula unit is NaCl

The formula unit of an ionic compound is contained in a

very large network of ions called a crystal.
 3-2. The Mole Concept and Chemical Calculations (9)
Ø Formula mass is the mass of a formula unit in atomic mass units.

Ø Molecular mass is the mass of a molecule in atomic mass units.

Ø For the molecular compound water, H2O,

Molecular mass H2O = 2(atomic mass H) + (atomic mass O)

= 2(1.008 u) + 15.999 u
= 18.015 u
Formula mass MgCl2 = atomic mass Mg + 2(atomic mass Cl)
24.305 u + 2(35.45 u)
= 95.21 u
 EXAMPLE (10)
Combining Several Factors in a Calculation Involving Molar Mass: The volatile
liquid ethyl mercaptan, C2H6S, is one the most odoriferous substances known. It is
sometimes added to natural gas to make gas leaks detectable. How many C2H6S
molecules are contained in a 1.0 µL sample? The density of liquid ethyl mercaptan
is 0.84 g/mL.

d = 0.84 g/mL

Mw = 62.1 g/mol (C2H5SH)

 EXAMPLE (11)
Convert from volume to mass
1 × 10#" 𝐿 1000 𝑚𝐿 0.84 𝑔 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆
? 𝑔 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆 = 1.0 𝜇𝐿 × × ×
1 𝜇𝐿 1𝐿 1 𝑚𝐿

= 8.4 × 10#$ 𝑔 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆

Convert from mass to amount in moles
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆
? 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆 = 8.4 × 10#$ 𝑔 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆 ×
62.1 𝑔 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆

= 1.4 × 10#% 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆

Convert from moles to molecules
6.02 × 10!& 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶 𝐻 𝑆
! "
? 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆 = 1.4 × 10#% 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆

= 8.1 × 10'( 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶!𝐻"𝑆

 Molecular Mass (12)
H OH
H O
HO Molecular formula C6H12O6
HO H
H OH Empirical formula CH2O
H OH
Glucose
Molecular Mass: Use the naturally occuring mixture of isotopes,

6 x 12.01 + 12 x 1.01 + 6 x 16.00 = 180.18

Exact Mass: Use the mass abundant isotopes,

6 x 12.000000 + 12 x 1.007825 + 6 x 15.994915 = 180.06339

 3-3. Composition of Chemical Compounds (13)
Halothane C2HBrClF3
The molecular formula of C2HBrClF3 tells us that per mole
of halothane there are two moles of C atoms, one mole each
of H, Br, and Cl atoms, and three moles of F atoms.

𝑀)! *+,)-." = 2𝑀) + 𝑀* + 𝑀+, + 𝑀)- + 3𝑀.

= 2 × 12.011 + 1.008 + 79.904 + 35.45 + 3 × 18.9984 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

= 197.38 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Calculating Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula (14)
1. Determine the molar mass of the compound: This is the denominator in following
equation.
2. Determine the contribution of the given element to the molar mass: This product of
the formula subscript and the molar mass of the element appears in the numerator of
following equation.
3. Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to the mass of the compound as
a whole: This is the ratio of the numerator from step 2 to the denominator from step 1.
4. Multiply this ratio by 100% to obtain the mass percent of the element.
 EXAMPLE (15)
Calculating the Mass Percent Composition of a Compound
What is the mass percent composition of halothane, C2HBrClF3 ?
Calculate the molar mass:

𝑀)! *+,)-." = 197.38 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

For one mole of compound, formulate the mass ratio and convert to percent:

12.01 𝑔 𝐶
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
%𝐶 = × 100% = 12.17%
197.38 𝑔 𝐶!𝐻𝐵𝑟𝐶𝑙𝐹&
 EXAMPLE (16)
1.01 𝑔 𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
%𝐻 = × 100% = 0.51%
197.38 𝑔 𝐶! 𝐻𝐵𝑟𝐶𝑙𝐹"

79.90 𝑔 𝐵𝑟
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑟 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑟
%𝐵𝑟 = × 100% = 40.48%
197.38 𝑔 𝐶! 𝐻𝐵𝑟𝐶𝑙𝐹"

35.45 𝑔 𝐶𝑙
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙
%𝐶𝑙 = × 100% = 17.96%
197.38 𝑔 𝐶! 𝐻𝐵𝑟𝐶𝑙𝐹"

19.00 𝑔 𝐹
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹
%𝐹 = × 100% = 28.88%
197.38 𝑔 𝐶! 𝐻𝐵𝑟𝐶𝑙𝐹"
 Establishing Formulas from Experimentally Determined Percent Composition (17)
Ø Assume that your sample is exactly 100 g. In a 100 g sample, the masses of the elements
are equal to their percentages.
Ø We convert the masses in 100 g sample to moles.
Ø We write the formula that fits the mole values found.
Ø We try to turn the indices into whole numbers by dividing the numbers we find by the
smallest.
Ø At this point, if the indices are only slightly different from whole numbers, we round
them to whole numbers. If one or more indices are not whole numbers, we multiply them
by a small whole number to make all indices whole numbers.
 EXAMPLE (18)
Determining the Empirical and Molecular Formulas of a Compound from
Its Mass Percent Composition
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against household ants and
roaches. Its composition is 62.58% C, 9.63% H, and 27.79% O. Its
experimentally determined molecular mass is 230 u. What are the empirical
and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?
Step 1: Determine the mass of each element in a 100 g of sample.
C = 62.58 g H = 9.63 g O = 27.79 g
 EXAMPLE (19)
Step 2: Convert masses to amounts in moles.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
𝑛) = 62.58 𝑔 𝐶 × = 5.210 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
12.011 𝑔 𝐶

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
𝑛* = 9.63 𝑔 𝐻 × = 9.55 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
1.008 𝑔 𝐻

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
𝑛/ = 27.79 𝑔 𝑂 × = 1.737 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
15.999 𝑔 𝑂

Step 3: Write a tentative formula: C5.21H9.55O1.74 à 𝐶!.#$ 𝐻'.!! 𝑂$.%&

$.%& $.%& $.%&

Step 4: Convert to small whole numbers: C2.99H5.49O

 EXAMPLE (20)
Step 5: Convert to a small whole number ratio.
Multiply x 2 to get C5.98H10.98O2
The empirical formula is C6H11O2

Step 6: Determine the molecular formula

Empirical formula mass is 115 u.
Molecular formula mass is 230 u.
The molecular formula is C12H22O4
Combustion Analysis (21)
 EXAMPLE (22)
Determining an Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis Data
Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of a 0.2000 g sample of this
carbon-hydrogen-oxygen compound yields 0.2998 g CO2 and 0.0819 g H2O. What are the
percent composition and the empirical formula of vitamin C?
Percent Composition:
First, determine the mass of carbon in 0.2988 g CO2, by converting to mol C,

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂! 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

? 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 = 0.2998 𝑔 𝐶𝑂! × × = 0.006812 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
44.009 𝑔 𝐶𝑂! 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂!

and then to g C,
12.011 𝑔 𝐶
? 𝑔 𝐶 = 0.006812 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 × = 0.08182 𝑔 𝐶
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
 EXAMPLE (23)
Proceed in a similar fashion for 0.0819 g H2O to obtain,

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻! 𝑂 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
? 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 = 0.0819 𝑔 𝐻! 𝑂 × × = 0.00909 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
18.02 𝑔 𝐻! 𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻! 𝑂

and
1.008 𝑔 𝐻
? 𝑔 𝐻 = 0.00909 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 × = 0.00916 𝑔 𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻

Obtain the mass of oxygen in the 0.2000 g sample as the difference:

? 𝑔 𝑂 = 0.2000 𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 − 0.08182 𝑔 𝐶 − 0.00916 𝑔 𝐻 = 0.1090 𝑔 𝑂

 EXAMPLE (24)
Finally, multiply the mass fractions of the three elements by 100% to obtain mass
percentages.
0.08182 𝑔 𝐶
%𝐶 = × 100% = 40.91% 𝐶
0.2000 𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

0.00916 𝑔 𝐻
%𝐻 = × 100% = 4.58% 𝐻
0.2000 𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

0.1090 𝑔 𝑂
%𝑂 = × 100% = 54.50% 𝑂
0.2000 𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
 EXAMPLE (25)
Empirical Formula:
First, calculate the number of moles of oxygen is:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
? 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 = 0.1090 𝑔 𝑂 × = 0.006813 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
15.999 𝑔 𝑂

From the numbers of moles of C, H, and O in the 0.2000 g sample, we obtain the
tentative empirical formula;
𝐶@.@@ABCD 𝐻@.@@E@E 𝑂@.@@ABCF
Next, divide each subscript by the smallest (0.006812) to obtain;
𝐶𝐻C.FF 𝑂
Finally, multiply all the subscripts by 3 to obtain; Empirical formula of Vitamin C:
𝐶F 𝐻G 𝑂F
 3-4. Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing Chemical Compounds (26)

Metals tend to Non-metals tend

lose electrons. to gain electrons.
Na à Na+ + e- Cl + e- à Cl-
Reducing agents Oxidizing agents

We use the Oxidation State to keep track of the number of

electrons that have been gained or lost by an element.
 Rules for Oxidation States (27)
Ø The oxidation state (OS) of an individual atom in a free element is
zero.
Ø The total of the OS in all atoms in:
Ø Neutral species is zero.
Ø Ionic species is equal to the charge on the ion.

Ø In their compounds, the alkali metals and the alkaline earths have OS
of +1 and +2, respectively.
Ø In compounds the OS of fluorine is always -1.
 Rules for Oxidation States (28)
Ø In compounds, the OS of hydrogen is usually +1.
Ø In compounds, the OS of oxygen is usually -2.
Ø In binary (two-element) compounds with metals:
Ø Halogens have OS of -1,
Ø Group 16 have OS of -2 and
Ø Group 15 have OS of -3.
 EXAMPLES (29)
Assigning Oxidation States
What is the oxidation state of the underlined element in each of the following?
a) P4, b) Al2O3, c) MnO4-, and d) NaH
a) P4 is an element. OS of P is zero.
b) Al2O3: O is -2. O3 is -6. Since (+6)/2 = (+3), OS of Al = +3 à 0 = 2Al + 3O (-6)
c) MnO4-: net OS = -1. O4 is -8. OS of Mn = +7 à Total -1 = Mn (?) + O (-8)
d) NaH: OS of Na: +1 and OS of H is -1. à Total 0 = Na (+1) + H (-1).
3-5. Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds (30)
Binary Compounds of Metals and Non-Metals:
Ø Binary compounds are those formed between two elements.
Ø If one of the elements is a metal and the other a non-metal, the binary compound is
usually made up of ions; that is, it is a binary ionic compound.
Ø To name a binary compound of a metal and a non-metal,
Ø Write the unmodified name of the metal
Ø Then write the name of the non-metal, modified to end in –ide.
3-5. Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds (31)
 Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals (32)
Ø If the two elements in a binary compound are both non-metals instead of a
metal and a non-metal, the compound is a molecular compound.
Ø Usually the element with the positive oxidation state is written first.
Ø For example, HCl : Hydrogen chloride
Ø Some pairs of metals make more than one compound and have different
names.
Mono : 1 Di: 2 Tri: 3
Tetra: 4 Penta: 5 Hexa: 6
Hepta: 7 Octa: 8 nona: 9 deca: 10
Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals (33)
 Binary Acids (34)
Ø Acids form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
Ø Acids ionize in water.
Ø In naming binary acids, we use the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the
other non-metal modified with an –ic ending.
Ø The most important binary acids are listed below:
HF: Hydrofluoric acid
HBr: Hydrobromic acid
HCl: Hydrochloric acid
HI: Hydroiodic acid
Polyatomic Ions (35)
 Oxoacids (36)
Ø The majority of acids are ternary compounds.
Ø They contain three different elements – hydrogen and two other non-metals.
Ø If one of the non-metals is oxygen, the acid is called an oxoacid.
Ø Think of oxoacids as combinations of hydrogen ions (H+) and oxoanions.