BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERINGNOTES
Chapter 5 :
Unit - Transistors
Marks Distribution
Teaching Hours: 10 Remember = Understanding = Applying = Total =
04 M 6M 02 M 12 M

Topics and subtopics:

5.1 BJT:Types, symbol, construction and working principle of NPN transistor.

5.2Transistor configurations:CB,CE,CC
5.3 Characteristics of transistor in CE configuration.
5.4 Transistor parameters: alpha, beta and derive relation between them.
5.5 Applications-Transistor as a switch and as an amplifier.
5.6 FET:Types, symbol, construction and working principle of n channel JFET.
5.7 CharacteristicsofJFET:Drainand Transfer

5.1 BJT:Types, symbol, construction and working principle of NPN transistor.

BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

• A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device that amplifies current. It is widely
used for signal amplification and switching applications.

• A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device that amplifies or switches electrical
signals. It is made up of two p-n junctions and has three terminals: base, collector, and emitter.
• BJTs use both electrons and holes as charge carriers.

• The base current (IB) controls the collector current (IC).

• BJTs can transfer input signals from low resistance circuits to high resistance circuits.

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• A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of two p-n junctions
which are able to amplify or magnify a signal.
• It is a current controlled device.
• The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter.
• A signal of a small amplitude applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the collector of the
transistor.
• This is the amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of DC power
supply to carry out the amplification process.

Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor

• BJT is a semiconductor device that is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor Regions i.e. Base,
Collector & Emitter separated by 2 p-n Junctions.

• Bipolar transistors are manufactured in two types, PNP and NPN, and are available as separate
components, usually in large quantities. T

• he prime use or function of this type of transistor is to amplify current. This makes them useful as
switches or amplifiers.

• They have a wide application in electronic devices like mobile phones, televisions, radio
transmitters, and industrial control.

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 Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:

• Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.

• Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and operates as a switch such that
collector current is equal to the saturation current.
• Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and collector current is equal to zero.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:

• PNP bipolar junction transistor

• NPN bipolar junction transistor

PNP BJT
In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-type semiconductors.

The two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the n-type
semiconductor acts as a base.

This is shown in the figure below.

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The current enters the transistor through the emitter such that the emitter-base junction is forward
biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

NPN BJT
• In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type semiconductors.

• The two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the p-type
semiconductor acts as a base.

• This is shown in the figure below.

Current entering the emitter, base, and collector has the sign convention of positive while the current that
leaves the transistor has the sign convention of negative.

Function of Bipolar Junction Transistor

• BJTs are of two types namely NPN and PNP based on doping types of the three main terminals.

• An NPN transistor consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin p-doped anode region
and PNP transistor also consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin n- doped cathode
region.

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 Fig. Symbol of Transistor

• The flow of charge in a Bipolar transistor is due to the diffusion of charge carriers between
the two regions belonging to different charge concentrations.
• Regions of BJT are known as the base, collector, and emitter.
• The emitter region is highly doped when compared to other layers.
• Both collector and base layers have the same charge carrier concentrations. Among these
junctions, the base-emitter junction is forward biased, and the base-collector junction is
reverse biased.
• Forward biased means p-doped region has more potential than the n-doped side.

Voltage, Charge Control and Current

• The base-emitter current is controlled by the collector-emitter current. This conclusion is drawn by
the current-voltage relation of the base-emitter junction. Collector current has a base region where
minority carriers are concentrated.

•
Transistor models such as the Glenn poon model are responsible for the distribution of the charge
which explains the behaviour of a transistor.

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 Configuration of Bipolar Junction Transistors
Since a Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are three ways to connect it within
an electric circuit while one terminal is the same for both output and input. Every method of connection
responds differently to the input signals within a circuit.

• Common Emitter Configuration – has both voltage and current gain

• The common Collector Configuration – has no voltage gain but has a current gain
• The common base configuration – has no current gain but has a voltage gain

Characteristics of different transistor configurations are given in the following table:

Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Power Gain low Very high medium

Current gain low medium high

Voltage gain High Medium low

Phase angle 0 180 0

Output impedance Very high high low

Input Impedance Low medium high

Basic Construction of a BJT:

A BJT consists of three layers of semiconductor material, which are:

• Emitter (E)
• Base (B)
• Collector (C)

The construction of each type (NPN and PNP) is based on the arrangement of these layers:

• NPN Transistor: The emitter is made of n-type material, the base is made of p-type material, and the
collector is made of n-type material.
• PNP Transistor: The emitter is made of p-type material, the base is made of n-type material, and the
collector is made of p-type material.

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Layers and Their Functions:

1. Emitter (E):
o The emitter is heavily doped to increase its efficiency in injecting charge carriers (electrons or holes)
into the base.
o In an NPN transistor, the emitter is made of n-type material, and in a PNP transistor, it is made of p-
type material.
o It is the source of charge carriers (electrons in NPN, holes in PNP).
2. Base (B):
o The base is very thin and lightly doped. It controls the flow of charge carriers between the emitter
and collector.
o In an NPN transistor, the base is p-type, and in a PNP transistor, it is n-type.
o It allows a small current to control a much larger current flowing between the emitter and the
collector.
3. Collector (C):
o The collector is made of the same type of material as the emitter but is typically more heavily doped
in the case of an NPN transistor.
o In an NPN transistor, the collector is n-type, and in a PNP transistor, it is p-type.
o It collects the charge carriers from the emitter, passing them through the base region.

NPN BJT Construction (Example):

• Emitter: N-type material (heavily doped).

• Base: P-type material (lightly doped, thin).
• Collector: N-type material (moderately doped).

Operation of a BJT:

The operation of a BJT is based on the flow of charge carriers (electrons and holes) between the emitter, base, and
collector. In an NPN transistor:

• When a small current flows from the base to the emitter (forward bias), it allows a larger current to flow
from the collector to the emitter.
• This creates the amplification effect.

Key Points:

• BJT: A current-controlled device.

• NPN Transistor: Has electrons as the majority carriers in the emitter and collector.
• PNP Transistor: Has holes as the majority carriers in the emitter and collector.
• Active Region: BJT operates in this region where current amplification occurs.
• Saturation and Cutoff Regions: These are the regions where the transistor is fully on (saturation) or off
(cutoff).

A BJT operates in three main regions: cutoff (fully off), active (amplifying), and
saturation (fully on), each defined by the biasing of the base-emitter and base-collector
junctions.

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In the active region, the NPN transistor operates in such a way that it can amplify signals.

Here's a breakdown of the NPN BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) operation in the active region:

1. Basic Structure of an NPN BJT:

• Emitter (N-type): It is the region from which the majority charge carriers (electrons) are injected.
• Base (P-type): It is the thin, lightly-doped region that controls the flow of carriers.
• Collector (N-type): It is the region that collects the charge carriers (electrons from the emitter).

2. Active Region Definition:

In the active region:

• Base-Emitter Junction is forward biased.

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 • Base-Collector Junction is reverse biased.

This configuration allows the transistor to amplify signals.

3. Biasing Conditions:

• The base-emitter voltage (V_BE) should be greater than 0.7V (for silicon transistors) to forward bias the
base-emitter junction.
• The collector-base voltage (V_CB) must be positive, meaning the base is at a lower potential than the
collector. This reverse biases the collector-base junction.

4. Carrier Injection and Flow:

• Electrons are injected from the emitter (N-type) into the base (P-type). These electrons are the majority
charge carriers.
• The base is very thin and lightly doped, so only a small fraction of electrons recombine with holes in the
base.
• The majority of electrons (about 98-99%) diffuse through the base and are swept into the collector (N-type)
due to the reverse bias of the base-collector junction.

5. Current Components:

• Emitter Current (I_E): The total current entering the emitter, composed of both electrons that recombine in
the base and those that reach the collector.
o IE=IC+IBI_E = I_C + I_BIE=IC+IB where ICI_CIC is the collector current and IBI_BIB is the base current.
• Base Current (I_B): The current that flows into the base and is responsible for controlling the transistor's
operation.
• Collector Current (I_C): The current that flows from the collector to the emitter and is largely composed of
electrons that have traveled through the base and are collected by the collector.
o In the active region, I_C is primarily determined by the base current IBI_BIB, with the relation:

IC=βIBI_C = \beta I_BIC=βIB

where β\betaβ (beta) is the current gain of the transistor.

6. Voltage and Current Relations:

• The collector-emitter voltage (V_CE) should be higher than the saturation voltage (typically 0.2V) to keep
the transistor in active mode.
• The transistor is considered to be saturated if VCEV_CEVCE is less than the saturation voltage.

7. Active Region Behavior:

• In the active region, the transistor amplifies signals. Small changes in IBI_BIB result in large changes in
ICI_CIC, making the transistor an effective current amplifier.
• The transistor's gain (β) can vary depending on the operating conditions and the transistor's physical
characteristics.

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8. Applications:

• Amplification: The primary use of a BJT in the active region is amplification, where small changes in the input
signal (base current) result in large changes in the output (collector current).

• Switching: A BJT can also be used as a switch in the active region, though typically the transistor is used in
saturation (fully on) or cut-off (fully off) modes for switching purposes.

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 BJT AS A SWITCH

A BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) can function as a switch, turning on and off in response to input signals.

This ability is primarily exploited in digital circuits, logic gates, and various other applications where switching is
needed.

When used as a switch, the BJT operates in two distinct states: saturation (fully on) and cut-off (fully off). Here's an
in-depth look at the BJT transistor used as a switch:

1. Basic Operation Modes for Switching:

• Saturation Region (ON):

o The transistor is "fully on," and the current flows freely from the collector to the emitter. This mode
is analogous to a closed switch.
o Both the base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction are forward biased.
o In this region, the collector-emitter voltage (V_CE) is very small, typically around 0.2V, indicating the
transistor is fully conducting.
o The transistor acts like a low-resistance path between the collector and emitter.

• Cut-off Region (OFF):

o The transistor is "off," and no current flows from the collector to the emitter. This is similar to an
open switch.
o The base-emitter junction is not forward biased (i.e., VBE<0.7VV_{BE} < 0.7VVBE<0.7V for silicon
transistors), and the base-collector junction is reverse biased.
o In this region, the collector current (I_C) is essentially zero.
o The transistor behaves as if it is an open circuit.

2. Principles of BJT Switching:

• Base Current Control:

o The BJT needs a small base current (IBI_BIB) to switch it on (saturation). Once the transistor is in
saturation, it behaves as a closed switch, allowing the larger collector current (ICI_CIC) to flow.
o To turn the transistor off, the base current must be reduced to zero or a very small value.

• Switching Threshold:
o The base-emitter voltage must exceed a threshold of approximately 0.7V (for silicon BJTs) for the
transistor to enter the saturation region and conduct.
o Below this voltage, the transistor stays in the cut-off region and does not conduct.

3. Base Drive and Saturation:

• Saturation Condition: For a transistor to switch fully on (saturation), there needs to be enough base current
to ensure that the transistor can conduct the required collector current. The saturation condition is often
defined by the relationship:
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 IB=ICβI_B = \frac{I_C}{\beta}IB=βIC

where:

o IBI_BIB = base current

o ICI_CIC = collector current
o β\betaβ = current gain of the transistor

In practice, to ensure the transistor enters saturation and has low resistance between the collector and
emitter, a higher base current is provided than the minimum value calculated by IB=ICβI_B =
\frac{I_C}{\beta}IB=βIC. Typically, a factor of 5 to 10 times the minimum required base current is used to
ensure the transistor is fully saturated.

4. Saturation Voltage:

• In saturation, the collector-emitter voltage (V_CE) drops to a small value, typically around 0.2V or less,
which represents the voltage drop across the transistor when it is fully on?
•
• The saturation voltage (V_CE(sat)) is the small voltage across the collector and emitter when the transistor
is fully conducting in the saturation region.

5. Cut-off Region (OFF):

• When the base-emitter junction is not forward biased (i.e., VBE<0.7VV_{BE} < 0.7VVBE<0.7V for a silicon
transistor), the transistor enters the cut-off region and behaves as an open switch.
• The collector current (I_C) is essentially zero.
• The transistor will stay in the cut-off region until a sufficient base current is applied to forward bias the base-
emitter junction.

6. Typical Switching Circuit:

In a typical switching application, the BJT is used with:

• A load resistor (R_L) connected to the collector.

• A control signal applied to the base to switch the transistor on and off.

When the base current is sufficient (above the threshold of 0.7V for a silicon transistor), the transistor turns on, and
the current flows from the collector to the emitter, powering the load. When the base current is removed or
reduced, the transistor switches off, and no current flows through the load.

7. Switching Time:

• Turn-On Time: The time it takes for the BJT to transition from the cut-off region to the saturation region (i.e.,
when the switch turns "on").
• Turn-Off Time: The time it takes for the BJT to transition from the saturation region to the cut-off region
(i.e., when the switch turns "off").

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 • Switching speed can be affected by factors such as the base drive (how quickly the base current is increased
or decreased), the transistor's capacitances, and the load characteristics.

8. Application of BJT as a Switch:

• Digital Logic Circuits: BJTs are used to implement basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) by acting as switches.
• Relays and Motor Control: A BJT can switch large currents to control relays or motors in circuits.
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): In PWM circuits, BJTs are used as high-speed switches to control the
power delivered to the load by turning on and off rapidly.
• Switching Power Supplies: BJTs are used to switch the power in high-frequency power supply circuits.

9. Consider an NPN BJT used as a switch in a simple circuit:

• The collector is connected to a load resistor and then to the positive voltage supply.
• The emitter is connected to ground.
• A control signal (voltage) is applied to the base through a base resistor.

To turn the transistor on:

• Apply a base voltage VBEV_{BE}VBE greater than 0.7V to forward bias the base-emitter junction.
• The transistor will enter saturation, and current will flow from the collector to the emitter, powering the
load.

To turn the transistor off:

• Remove or reduce the base voltage below 0.7V.

• The transistor will enter the cut-off region, and no current will flow from the collector to the emitter, turning
off the load.

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 Common Base Configuration of BJT

The Common Base (CB) Configuration is one of the three basic configurations of a BJT
(Bipolar Junction Transistor), the other two being Common Emitter (CE) and Common
Collector (CC).

In the Common Base Configuration, the base of the transistor is common to both the input
and output, acting as the reference point for both the input signal and the output signal.

. Structure and Connections:

• Emitter: The input terminal where the current (or signal) is injected. It is connected to the input
circuit.
• Base: The common terminal shared by both the input and output signals. It is usually kept at a
constant voltage (bias) and is connected to the ground in certain circuits.
• Collector: The output terminal where the output current is taken from. It is connected to the load
and power supply.

In this configuration, the base is common to both the input and output circuits, hence the name common
base.

2. Biasing in Common Base Configuration:

• The base-emitter junction is forward biased to allow current flow, and the base-collector junction
is reverse biased.
• Typically, a DC biasing is applied to the transistor to establish proper operating conditions.
• The input signal is applied at the emitter, and the output signal is taken from the collector.

3. Operation of the Common Base Configuration:

• Input: A small signal is applied to the emitter, which causes a change in the emitter current
(IEI_EIE).
• Output: The change in emitter current modulates the collector current (ICI_CIC), which flows
through the collector load. Since the base is common, the output voltage is taken from the
collector.
• Amplification: The current gain in the common base configuration is less than 1, but the voltage
gain is typically high. Therefore, it is a voltage amplifier configuration.

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 Common Emitter Configuration of BJT

The Common Emitter (CE) configuration is one of the most widely used configurations for Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJTs). It is commonly employed in amplifier circuits due to its high current gain, high voltage
gain, and the ability to invert the output signal. In the common emitter configuration, the emitter is the
common terminal for both the input and the output circuits.

1. Structure and Connections:

In the Common Emitter Configuration, the emitter is common to both the input and output signals. The
setup is as follows:

• Emitter: The common terminal for both the input and output, usually grounded.
• Base: The input terminal where the input signal (voltage) is applied.
• Collector: The output terminal where the output signal is taken.

2. Biasing in Common Emitter Configuration:

The transistor must be properly biased to operate in its active region (for amplification). The base-emitter
junction must be forward biased, and the base-collector junction must be reverse biased. Typically:

• A DC biasing network is used to set the base voltage to keep the transistor in the active region.
• A capacitive coupling is used to apply the AC signal to the base, and a collector resistor is used to
extract the output signal.

3. Operation of the Common Emitter Configuration:

• Input Signal: The input signal is applied to the base of the transistor through a coupling capacitor.
This signal modulates the base current (I_B).
• Output Signal: The variation in the base current controls the collector current (I_C), which is taken
as the output signal. The output voltage is observed across the collector resistor (R_C).
• The current gain is high, and the voltage gain is also typically high, making it suitable for
amplification purposes.

The transistor amplifies the small input signal, causing a larger output signal at the collector, with a 180-
degree phase shift (i.e., the output is inverted relative to the input).

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 Common Collector Configuration of BJT

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration, also known as the Emitter Follower, is one of the three
basic configurations of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). In this configuration, the collector is
common to both the input and output circuits, hence the name Common Collector.

The common collector configuration is primarily used for impedance matching and buffering because it
provides high input impedance, low output impedance, and unity voltage gain. It is often used to connect
high-impedance sources to low-impedance loads without significant signal loss.

1. Structure and Connections:

In the Common Collector Configuration, the collector is the common terminal to both the input and
output.

• Base: The input terminal where the input signal is applied.

• Collector: The common terminal that is usually connected directly to the power supply or ground
and does not have a significant role in the signal flow.
• Emitter: The output terminal, where the output signal is taken. This is also where the input current
flows through and is amplified.

2. Biasing in Common Collector Configuration:

As with all transistor configurations, proper biasing is necessary to ensure the transistor operates in its
active region. A DC biasing network is used to set the correct operating point for the base, ensuring the
transistor operates in the active region.

• The base-emitter junction is forward biased to allow current flow.

• The collector-emitter junction is reverse biased.

The input signal is applied to the base through a capacitive coupling capacitor, while the output is taken
from the emitter.

3. Operation of the Common Collector Configuration:

In the common collector configuration:

• The input signal is applied to the base of the transistor, which modulates the base current (I_B).
• The base current controls the collector current (I_C), and since the collector is common to both
input and output, the output current is essentially the same as the emitter current (I_E).
• The output voltage is taken from the emitter, with the output signal being in phase with the input
signal (no phase inversion).

The voltage gain in this configuration is approximately 1, meaning the voltage at the emitter follows the
input voltage with little to no amplification, but there is a current gain.

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 Input Characteristics of BJT

he input characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) describe the relationship

between the base current (IB) and the base-emitter voltage (VBE) when the collector-
emitter voltage (VCE) is held constant, forming a curve that reveals how the transistor's
input current changes with input voltage.

Input characteristics are a graphical representation of the BJT's input behavior, specifically how the base
current (IB) changes as the base-emitter voltage (VBE) changes, while keeping the collector-emitter voltage
(VCE) constant.

• Common Emitter Configuration:

In a common-emitter configuration, the input characteristics are typically plotted with VBE on the x-axis
and IB on the y-axis, with different curves representing different VCE values.

• Input Impedance:
The input impedance of a BJT is the ratio of the change in VBE to the change in IB, which can be
determined from the slope of the input characteristic curve.
• Key Observations:
• The input characteristic curve typically shows a non-linear relationship between IB and VBE.
• The base current (IB) increases as the base-emitter voltage (VBE) increases, up to a certain point.
• The slope of the curve is a measure of the transistor's input impedance.
Other Configurations:
The input characteristics can also be analyzed for other BJT configurations, such as common base and
common collector, but the relationships between the input parameters will differ.

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 The output characteristics of a BJT,

The output characteristics of a BJT, typically plotted as collector current (IC) versus
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) with a constant base current (IB), reveal three key
operating regions: cutoff, active, and saturation.

• Cutoff Region:
In this region, both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse-biased, resulting in
minimal or no collector current flow.
• Active Region:
The base-emitter junction is forward-biased, and the base-collector junction is reverse-
biased. The transistor operates as an amplifier, with the collector current controlled by the base
current.
• Saturation Region:
Both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward-biased, resulting in a high
collector current that is relatively insensitive to changes in VCE.

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 Transistor Applications

Transistors, fundamental building blocks of modern electronics, are used as

both amplifiers and switches, finding applications in a vast array of devices and
systems, from smartphones to computers and everything in between.

1. Amplifiers:
• Signal Amplification:
Transistors can amplify weak electrical signals, making them essential in audio
equipment, communication systems, and other applications where signal strength is
crucial.
• Audio Amplifiers:
They are used in amplifiers for microphones, speakers, and other audio devices to
boost the signal.
• Radio Amplifiers:
Transistors amplify radio signals in communication devices, ensuring strong
transmission.
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• Optical Fiber Communication:
Transistors are used in optical fiber communication to amplify the output signal.
2. Switches:
• Digital Circuits:
Transistors act as microscopic switches, enabling the on/off states required in digital
logic gates and computer processing.
• Power Switching:
They are used in switching power supplies, motor control, and other applications
where precise control of power flow is needed.
• Memory Storage:
Transistors are the basic components of memory chips, allowing for the storage and
retrieval of data.
• Logic Gates:
Transistors are the fundamental building blocks of integrated circuits (ICs), which are
used in logic gates, microprocessors, and other digital systems.
• Automotive Electronics:
Transistors are used in automotive electronics, such as in engine control units and
other systems.
• Industrial Control Systems:
Transistors are used in industrial control systems, such as in automated machinery
and robotics.
Transistor As A Amplifier
A Transistor as an Amplifier typically involves a small signal being applied to the base of the transistor, which results
in a larger output signal taken from the collector or emitter (depending on the configuration). The role of the
transistor in the amplifier is to increase the strength of the input signal.

Block Diagram of Transistor as an Amplifier

+------------------+ +--------------------+ +----------------+
| | | | | |
| Input Signal | --->| Amplifier Stage |--->| Output Signal|
| (Small AC) | | (BJT) | | |
| | | | | |
+------------------+ +--------------------+ +----------------+
| ^ ^
| | |
Coupling Capacitor Biasing Network Coupling Capacitor
| | |
v v v
+------------------+ +--------------------+ +----------------+
| | | | | |
| Input Resistor | | Transistor | | Output Resistor|
| | | (BJT) | | |
+------------------+ +--------------------+ +----------------+

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 Description of Blocks:

1. Input Signal:
o The small AC signal (e.g., audio, radio signal, etc.) is applied to the base of the transistor via
a coupling capacitor. The purpose of the capacitor is to block DC components and allow
only the AC signal to pass to the transistor.
2. Input Resistor:
o A resistor is placed in series with the input to limit the amount of input current entering the
base of the transistor, thereby preventing damage and controlling the signal's amplitude.
3. Biasing Network:
o This network is responsible for providing the DC bias to the transistor to ensure it remains in
the correct operating region (usually the active region) for amplification. Typically, this
involves resistor networks that set the voltage at the base to ensure proper biasing of the
transistor.
o The biasing network ensures that the transistor does not go into cutoff or saturation, but
instead operates in the active region.
4. Amplifier Stage (Transistor):
o The transistor (in configurations such as common emitter, common collector, or common
base) serves as the amplifying element. The small AC signal at the base controls the much
larger current flowing from the collector to the emitter, amplifying the input signal.
o The output signal is taken from the collector (or emitter, depending on the configuration).
5. Output Resistor:
o A resistor is used at the output to develop the output voltage across it as the amplified
current flows through it. It is also used to limit current and set the operating point of the
amplifier circuit.
o This output resistor is often connected to the collector (for common emitter configurations),
and the output signal is taken from here.
6. Coupling Capacitor (Output):
o The output signal is passed through another coupling capacitor to block any DC component
and pass the amplified AC signal to the next stage or load.

Amplifier Characteristics

Amplifier characteristics include gain (amplification), frequency response, input and

output impedance, efficiency, and linearity, all of which are crucial for understanding
and selecting the right amplifier for a specific application.

. Gain (Amplification):
• Definition:
Gain is the ratio of the output signal strength to the input signal strength. It indicates
how much the amplifier boosts the signal.

26 Department of General Science & Humanities, Faculty of Polytechnic, YTC, Satara|

 2. Frequency Response:
• Definition:
Frequency response describes how well an amplifier handles signals of different
frequencies
. Input and Output Impedance:
• Definition:
Impedance is the opposition to the flow of alternating current (AC) in an electrical
circuit.
• Input Impedance:
High input impedance is desirable to minimize loading effects on the signal source.
• Output Impedance:
Low output impedance is important for efficient power transfer to the load.
. Efficiency:
• Definition: Efficiency refers to the ratio of output power to input power.
5. Linearity:
• Definition:
Linearity refers to how well the amplifier's output signal accurately reflects the input
signal, without introducing distortion.

27 Department of General Science & Humanities, Faculty of Polytechnic, YTC, Satara|

28 Department of General Science & Humanities, Faculty of Polytechnic, YTC, Satara|