CHAPTER D - INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another. It
also provides an understanding of how people adapt their behaviour according to the
environment they live in. Psychological notion of intelligence is quite different from the
common sensical notion of intelligence. If you watch an intelligent person, you are likely to
see in her/him attributes like mental alertness, ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to
understand relationships.

IQ

In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient
(IQ). Intelligence Quotient, is a numerical measure of an individual's cognitive abilities in
relation to their age group. It reflects general mental ability, including reasoning, problem-
solving, and learning capacity.

IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100.

Calculation:

Originally, IQ was calculated using the formula:

IQ=(Mental Age/Chronological Age) X 100

The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point.

Mental Age: The intellectual performance level of an individual as determined by a

standardized test.

Chronological Age: The actual age of the individual in years.

IQ Range Classification
130 and above Very Superior (Gifted)
120–129 Superior
110–119 High Average
90–109 Average
80–89 Low Average
70–79 Borderline Intellectual Functioning
Below 70 Intellectual Disability
MENTAL AGE

Mental Age (MA) refers to the level of cognitive ability or intellectual performance an
individual demonstrates as compared to the average abilities of individuals at a specific
chronological age. It is often used in the context of intelligence testing to assess developmental
progress or intellectual capabilities.

The concept of mental age was introduced by Alfred Binet. He assumed that mental
development need not correspond to chronological age. He devised a test comprising of items
specified for different age group levels and measured mental age of various people. Mental age
can be defined as the age at which individual performs successfully on all items on the test
prepared for that age.

How Mental Age Works:

1. Determination:

o A person's mental age is determined through standardized intelligence tests,

such as the Stanford-Binet Test or similar scales.

o The test evaluates various cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-

solving, memory, and language skills.

o The score is then compared to the performance norms for different age groups.

2. Interpretation:

o If a child performs on a test at the level expected of an average 10-year-old,

their mental age is 10, regardless of their actual chronological age.

o For example:

▪ A 7-year-old child with an MA of 9 performs intellectually like an

average 9-year-old.

▪ A 10-year-old child with an MA of 8 performs like an average 8-year-

old.
 WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale):

The WAIS is an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in adults and
older adolescents. Created by David Wechsler.

Structure: Divided into four major indices:

• Verbal Comprehension: Measures verbal reasoning and understanding.

• Perceptual Reasoning: Assesses visual-spatial and problem-solving abilities.

• Working Memory: Examines the ability to retain and manipulate information.

• Processing Speed: Tests how quickly a person can process simple tasks.

It’s widely used in clinical and educational settings to assess cognitive functioning.

WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children):

• The WISC is a counterpart of the WAIS, designed specifically for children aged 6 to
16.

Structure:

• The WISC is divided into four index scores and comprises a combination of subtests
that assess different cognitive abilities. These indices are:

• Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI): Measures verbal reasoning and understanding

of language-based concepts.

Subtests:

• Similarities

• Vocabulary

• Comprehension (optional)

Visual-Spatial Index (VSI): Assesses the ability to understand and manipulate visual
information.

Subtests:

• Block Design

• Visual Puzzles
Fluid Reasoning Index (FRI): Tests logical thinking and problem-solving using novel and
abstract information.

Subtests:

• Matrix Reasoning

• Figure Weights

Working Memory Index (WMI): Measures short-term memory and the ability to retain
and manipulate information.

Subtests:

• Digit Span

• Picture Span

• Processing Speed Index (PSI): Assesses the speed and accuracy of visual-motor
coordination.

Subtests:

• Coding

• Symbol Search

Scoring:

• Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ): Derived from the combination of all index scores, providing a
measure of overall intellectual ability.

• Index Scores: Reflect specific domains of cognitive functioning, offering a more

detailed analysis.

The WISC is used to identify learning disabilities, intellectual strengths, and weaknesses
in children.

Bhatia Battery of Performance Tests:

• The Bhatia Battery is an Indian intelligence test for children and adults, especially
useful in settings where language and cultural factors might impact verbal test results.
Components:

• Kohs Block Design Test

• Alexander's Pass-along Test

• Pattern Drawing Test

• Immediate Memory Test

• Picture Construction Test

It Measures performance intelligence through problem-solving and pattern recognition

tasks, rather than verbal or language-based skills. It’s often used in educational and
clinical settings in India.

Raven's Progressive Matrices:

This is a non-verbal intelligence test that measures abstract reasoning and problem-
solving ability.

Structure:

• It Consists of visual patterns with one piece missing; the task is to identify the correct
piece to complete the pattern.

• Versions: Standard, Colored (for children/elderly), and Advanced (for high-ability

individuals).

It Assesses problem-solving and reasoning independent of language or formal education.

It’s widely used to assess general cognitive ability, particularly in research and settings
where language and cultural differences may affect test results.

Binet-Kamat Test of Intelligence:

• This is an Indian adaptation of the original Binet-Simon intelligence test, developed by

Dr. S.K. Kamat to measure intelligence in the Indian population. It includes both verbal
and performance-based tasks and is commonly used to assess intellectual development
in children and adolescents.

Structure:

• Covers a wide age range, with tasks tailored to different developmental levels.

• Includes items on memory, reasoning, comprehension, vocabulary, and numerical

ability.
 The Scoring Provides an Intelligence Quotient (IQ) score based on mental age and
chronological age. It can help in diagnosing intellectual disabilities.

Malin's Intelligence Scale for Indian Children (MISIC):

• This is an Indian adaptation of the WISC, created by Arthur Malin, to measure the
intelligence of Indian children. Like the WISC, it assesses different cognitive abilities,
with subtests for verbal and performance IQ.

Structure:

• Divided into Verbal and Performance sections, covering areas like comprehension,
arithmetic, digit span, block design, and picture arrangement.

Purpose: Measures overall intelligence and identifies areas of cognitive strength and
weakness in children aged 6–15 years.

CHAPTER F - EMOTIONS

EMOTIONS
Emotions are complex psychological and physiological responses to stimuli, playing a vital
role in survival, communication, and decision-making.
Components of Emotions:
Emotions are multifaceted and involve several components:
1. Subjective Experience:
o The personal and internal aspect of emotions, how we "feel" emotions (e.g.,
happiness, sadness, anger).
2. Physiological Response:
o Bodily changes triggered by emotions, such as an increased heart rate,
sweating, or hormonal shifts (e.g., adrenaline).
3. Behavioral Expression:
o Outward signs of emotion, including facial expressions, gestures, tone of
voice, and actions (e.g., smiling, crying).
4. Cognitive Appraisal:
 o Our interpretation and evaluation of a situation that leads to an emotional
response.
Types of Emotions:
Emotions can be broadly categorized:
1. Basic Emotions (Proposed by Paul Ekman):
o Universally experienced emotions across cultures:
▪ Happiness: Joy, contentment, and satisfaction.
▪ Sadness: Grief, disappointment, or melancholy.
▪ Fear: Response to threats or danger.
▪ Anger: Frustration, hostility, or irritation.
▪ Disgust: Aversion to something unpleasant or offensive.
▪ Surprise: Reaction to unexpected events.
2. Complex Emotions:
o These are combinations of basic emotions influenced by social and cultural
factors:
▪ Love
▪ Guilt
▪ Shame
▪ Jealousy
▪ Pride
Functions of Emotions:
1. Adaptive Function:
o Emotions prepare us for action (e.g., fear triggers fight-or-flight responses).
2. Communication:
o They help convey our internal states to others, fostering social connections
(e.g., smiling to express happiness).
3. Decision-Making:
o Emotions guide choices and priorities, often influencing judgment.
4. Motivation:
o Positive emotions encourage goal pursuit, while negative emotions can signal
the need for change.
DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS

Katherine Bridges’ Theory - Emotions develop as babies age

Newborns - One emotion only: diffuse excitement

3 Months - Distress and delight

6 Months - Distress differentiates into fear, disgust, and anger

12 Months - Delight differentiates into elation and affection

2 Years - Jealousy develops from distress; joy develops from delight

1. ROLE OF THE RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)

The RAS, located in the brainstem, regulates arousal and alertness. It determines the intensity
of emotional responses by filtering sensory inputs and maintaining attention toward
emotionally significant stimuli.

Key Functions of the RAS:

1. Regulation of Arousal and Consciousness

2. Attention and Focus
3. Sleep-Wake Cycle
4. Sensory Modulation
5. Motor Control
6. Emotional Regulation

2. ROLE OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS

The hypothalamus is central to emotion regulation, controlling the autonomic nervous system
and endocrine responses. It links emotions with physiological states, such as increased heart
rate during fear or excitement, and coordinates stress responses via the hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Key Functions of the Hypothalamus:

1. Homeostasis: Body temperature, Fluid balance, Blood pressure, Heart rate,

Electrolyte balance
 2. Endocrine Regulation: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), Corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH), Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), Growth hormone-
releasing hormone (GHRH)
3. Temperature Regulation: Cooling mechanisms, Heating mechanisms
4. Hunger and Thirst
5. Sleep-Wake Cycle
6. Emotional Responses and Behavior
7. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Control
8. Stress Response

3. ROLE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex, especially the prefrontal cortex, is involved in the conscious experience
of emotions and decision-making. It helps regulate and interpret emotional stimuli, providing
reasoning and control over impulsive reactions.

Key Roles of the Cerebral Cortex:

1. Sensory Processing: Primary Sensory Cortex , Visual Cortex, Auditory Cortex

2. Motor Control: Primary motor cortex, Premotor and supplementary motor areas
3. Language: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area
4. Cognition and Executive Functions
5. Memory
6. Emotion and Social Behavior
7. Perception and Awareness
8. Learning and Adaptation

4. ROLE OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS)

The SNS activates the "fight or flight" response during emotional states like fear or anger. It
prepares the body for immediate action by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and
redirecting blood flow to muscles.

Key Functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System:

1. Fight-or-Flight Response
2. Regulation of Homeostasis
3. Energy Mobilization
 4. Pupil Dilation
5. Inhibition of Non-Essential Functions
6. Thermoregulation
7. Enhanced Alertness

5. ROLE OF THE ADRENAL GLAND

The adrenal glands release adrenaline and cortisol during emotional stress. Adrenaline
enhances alertness and energy, while cortisol helps manage prolonged stress, though chronic
activation can lead to negative health effects.

Functions of the Adrenal Glands:

1. Stress Response: Adrenal Cortex, Adrenal Medulla

2. Regulation of Metabolism
3. Blood Pressure Regulation
4. Reproductive Function
5. Immune System Modulation

6. HEREDITY AND EMOTION

Genetics influences emotional tendencies, such as temperament and susceptibility to mood

disorders. While heredity plays a role, environmental factors also significantly shape
emotional development and expression.

1. Influence of Heredity on Emotional Traits:

A. Temperament

B. Emotional Sensitivity

C. Emotional Regulation

2. Genetic Basis of Emotional Responses:

A. Neurotransmitter Systems

B. Brain Structures and Genetics

3. Heredity and Emotional Disorders:

A. Anxiety and Depression

B. Bipolar Disorder

C. Emotional Dysregulation Disorders

4.Interaction Between Heredity and Environment:

A. Gene-Environment Interaction

B. Epigenetics

7. CONTROL OF ANGER, FEAR, AND ANXIETY

• Anger: Controlled by activating the prefrontal cortex to regulate impulsivity and using
techniques like deep breathing or reframing thoughts.

• Fear: Managed by desensitization and engaging the prefrontal cortex to rationalize

fears.

• Anxiety: Reduced through stress management techniques like mindfulness, physical

activity, and cognitive-behavioral strategies to calm the amygdala.

These systems and strategies collectively balance emotional responses, ensuring survival
while maintaining social harmony and mental health.

CHAPTER M – DEFENSE MECHANISM OF THE EGO

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Defense mechanisms are patterns of thinking that we engage in to provide ourselves

psychological protection. Healthy defense mechanisms help us cope with trauma, stress, and
adversity. However, if we use defense mechanisms to avoid feelings that must be fully
experienced, to avoid unpleasant truth and reality, or to avoid difficult work, responsibility or
accountability, then this process is unhealthy. We will be more successful in our lives as we
understand how we use these unhealthy defenses and learn to recognize them in ourselves.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Denial : We protect ourselves from some unpleasant reality by simply refusing to face or accept
it.

Example:
 • It is obvious that an alcohol addiction is creating serious problems in my life, but I deny
it because I don’t want to give up the perceived benefits that I get from drinking

Rationalization: We try to convince ourselves and others with reasonable-sounding arguments

that an unacceptable thought, attitude, behavior, etc., is acceptable. By so doing we avoid
responsibility and accountability.

Example:

• A parent beats his child and avoids feelings of guilt and wrongdoing by convincing
himself that it is for the child’s own good

Projection: We deny and avoid accountability for our own undesired feelings and
inappropriate behaviors by attributing them to someone else.

Example:

• An angry husband accuses his wife of hostility towards him when the truth is that he is
the one feeling hostility towards her.

Reaction Formation: This is turning a feeling into its opposite. To ward off an anxiety-causing
and unacceptable impulse, one may replace it with its over-emphasized opposite.

Example:

• The young boy who hates his older brother for his accomplishments, praise and
attention may transform this hatred into aggressive love and praise. This makes his
behavior socially acceptable but the underlying hatred remains.

Identification: Increasing one’s feeling of worth by identifying one’s self with a person, group,
or institution perceived as desirable. We lose our own identity in the process, and fuse our
identity with the other person or entity.

Example:

• A teen boy, feeling like he doesn’t belong anywhere and unsure of his worth and
identity, joins a gang. The gang accepts him and gives him a sense of power, meaning
and belonging, but requires him to abide by a code of behavior that diminishes his
freedom and safety.
Repression: This is essentially forgetting, but it is not as if the information is disposed of
permanently; rather, the information is tucked away into the subconscious and has the potential
to resurface violently at any moment. The forgetting is used for defense as it protects the
individual from consciously dealing with painful circumstances and events.

Example:

• I experienced a traumatic event in my childhood which I was unprepared to cope with

at the time, so I repressed the memory to protect myself. Even though I am older now,
and can adequately cope with this I keep it repressed to avoid facing it.

Emotions

The ego sometimes uses emotions themselves as a protective mechanism to shield the
individual from confronting deeper conflicts. Emotional Projection: Attributing one’s
unacceptable feelings to others (e.g., accusing someone else of anger when you're angry).
Emotional Suppression: Consciously choosing to avoid feelings that might lead to distress.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions from the original source to a safer target (e.g., yelling at
a colleague after being scolded by a boss).

Insulation

Insulation involves detaching oneself emotionally from a situation to avoid feeling pain or
anxiety. Protects the individual from overwhelming emotional experiences. It Often overlaps
with avoidance as individuals insulate themselves from relationships, responsibilities, or
emotional vulnerability

Example:

• Someone might emotionally "shut down" after the loss of a loved one, avoiding grief
by becoming numb.

Undoing

A defense mechanism where an individual attempts to "undo" or reverse a thought, feeling, or

action that causes them guilt or anxiety. It often manifests in behaviors intended to "cancel out"
perceived wrongdoing. It Alleviates inner conflict by counteracting perceived harm.

Examples:
 • A person who feels guilty about lying may go out of their way to perform acts of
kindness to the person they lied to.
• Ritualistic behavior may also fall under undoing, such as repetitive handwashing to
"cleanse" guilt.

Introjection

A defense mechanism where individuals unconsciously adopt the attitudes, beliefs, or traits of
others. This often happens with authority figures (e.g., parents, mentors) or people the
individual admires or fears. Reduces anxiety by aligning oneself with a perceived source of
strength or authority. It Helps establish identity, though it can sometimes stifle personal
development.

Examples:

• A child who has internalized a parent’s critical voice might criticize themselves in the
same way.
• Someone might adopt the political views of a dominant partner to feel secure in the
relationship.

Depersonalization

A defense mechanism where an individual feels detached from themselves, as if observing their
thoughts, emotions, or body from outside. It often occurs in response to trauma or extreme
stress.The individual may feel "numb" or disconnected from reality as a way to cope with
overwhelming emotions. It Serves as a temporary escape from painful emotions or situations
that feel too overwhelming to confront

Examples:

• After a traumatic event, a person might feel as though they are in a dream or that their
body is not their own.
• During high-stress moments, someone might report a sense of "floating" or being
emotionally distant.

Acting Out: Reducing anxiety aroused by forbidden desires by permitting oneself to act them
out. Acting out allows one to be impulsive, irresponsible and out of control. Rather than find
healthy, constructive and socially acceptable means to channel frustration and aggressive
feelings one acts out by “going off” and abusing oneself and/or other people and property.
Examples:

• A girl is betrayed by a close friend. She acts out by cutting herself to express the
emotional pain that she feels.
• A boy is told by his father that he can no longer see a certain friend. He acts out his
anger and sadness by kicking a hole in the wall