(eBook PDF) Community and Problem-Oriented

Policing: Effectively Addressing Crime and

Disorder 7th Edition download

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-community-and-problem-
oriented-policing-effectively-addressing-crime-and-disorder-7th-
edition/

Download more ebook from https://ebookluna.com

 We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebookluna.com
to discover even more!

(eBook PDF) Community Policing: Partnerships for Problem Solving 8th

Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-community-policing-partnerships-
for-problem-solving-8th-edition/

(Original PDF) Community Based Strategic Policing in Canada 5th

https://ebookluna.com/product/original-pdf-community-based-strategic-
policing-in-canada-5th/

(eBook PDF) Clinically Oriented Anatomy 7th Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-clinically-oriented-anatomy-7th-
edition/

Swanson’s Family Medicine Review : A Problem-Oriented Approach, Ninth

Edition Alfred F. Tallia - eBook PDF

https://ebookluna.com/download/swansons-family-medicine-review-a-problem-
oriented-approach-ninth-edition-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Policing America: Challenges and Best Practices 9th Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-policing-america-challenges-and-
best-practices-9th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Java: An Introduction to Problem Solving and Programming 7th

Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-java-an-introduction-to-problem-
solving-and-programming-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Engineering Fundamentals and Problem Solving 7th Edition by

Arvid Eide

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-engineering-fundamentals-and-
problem-solving-7th-edition-by-arvid-eide/

(eBook PDF) Addressing Cultural Complexities in Practice, Third Edition:

Assessment, Diagnosis, and Therapy

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-addressing-cultural-complexities-
in-practice-third-edition-assessment-diagnosis-and-therapy/

(eBook PDF) Multiculturalism, Crime, and Criminal Justice

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-multiculturalism-crime-and-
criminal-justice/
 vii
Contents  

Educating the Hearts and Minds of the Guardians 61

Recruiting for Diversity: A Toolkit 62
Early Intervention Systems: Identifying Problem Employees 63
Racial Profiling and Bias-Based Policing 64
Summary 64   •   Key Terms and Concepts 64   •   Items for
Review 65   •   Learn by Doing 65   •   Endnotes 65

Chapter 4 Protecting the Homeland: An International

Problem for Local Police 68
Learning Objectives 68
Test Your Knowledge 68
Introduction 69
The Many Faces of Terrorism 70
Definitions and Types 70
Homegrown Violent Extremists 70
The Lone Wolf and Homegrown Terrorists 71
An International Problem 72
Cyberterrorism—and the Asian Threat 73
Bioterrorism 74
Law Enforcement Strategies 74
Adapting and Evolving 74
Other Approaches in the Law Enforcement Toolkit 76
Legislative Measures 76
Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: How to Balance Security
and Privacy 76
The Role of Local Police 77
Need for Vigilance 77
Having Plans in Place 78
Engaging the Community and Using Social Media 78
The Role of Community Policing 79
Building Trust 79
Developing Programs and Using Social Media 80
Summary 81   •   Key Terms and Concepts 81   •   Items for
Review 81   •   Learn by Doing 81   •   Endnotes 82

Part III Problem-Solving PROCESS, Programs,

and Practices  85
Chapter 5 Problem Solving: A Process Model 87
Learning Objectives 87
Test Your Knowledge 87
Introduction 88
Problem Solving: Rationalization and Application 88
Early Beginnings 88
Basic Principles 89
A Broader Role for the Street Officer 90
SARA: The Problem-Solving Process 91
Scanning: Problem Identification 91
viii  Contents

Aggregating Incidents 92
Analysis: The Heart of Problem Solving 93
Response: Formulating Tailor-Made Strategies 97
Assessment: Did Responses Diminish the Problem? 97
Difficulties with Problem-Solving Efforts 100
Tailoring Strategies to Neighborhoods 101
Which Strategy Where? 101
Differing Types of Neighborhoods 101
In Sum. . . 102
You Be the Problem Solver: The Case of the Late-Night Delivery
Robberies 102
Summary 104   •   Key Terms and Concepts 105   •   Items for
Review 105   •   Learn by Doing 105   •   Endnotes 105

Chapter 6 Crime Prevention: Programs and Practices 107

Learning Objectives 107
Test Your Knowledge 107
Introduction 108
A Brief History 108
Problem-Oriented Policing, Community, and Crime Prevention:
A Symbiotic Relationship 111
Close Companions 111
The Community’s Role in Preventing Crime and Restoring
Anchor Points 112
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design 114
Designing Out Crime 114
Second-Generation CPTED 115
Situational Crime Prevention 116
Other Crime Prevention Challenges 119
Officers’ Roles 119
Conducting a Publicity Campaign 120
Victim-Oriented Campaigns 120
Offender-Oriented Campaigns 120
Displacement of Crime and Diffusion of Benefit 121
Evaluating Crime Prevention Initiatives 122
Crime Prevention: What Works and What Doesn’t 122
What Prevents or Reduces Crime 123
What Does Not Appear to Be Successful 123
What Holds Promise 124
Summary 124   •   Key Terms and Concepts 124   •   Items for
Review 124   •   Learn by Doing 125   •   Endnotes 125

Chapter 7 Tools for Problem Solving:

Using Information Technology 127
Learning Objectives 127
Test Your Knowledge 127
Introduction 127
First Things First: IT Comes to Policing 128
 Contents  ix

Early Federal Stimulus 128

Chief Executives’ Views 129
IT for Problem-Oriented Policing: A Conceptual Framework 129
Rationale for IT 129
Systems for Acquiring Crime Information 129
Exploiting the Young Officer’s Flair for IT 130
Crime Analysis: Revisiting SARA 130
What It Is, and How It Works 130
What Crime Analysts Do 131
Acquiring the Ability to Analyze Crimes 132
Which IT Tools to Use? Look at Type of Police Function
Involved 133
Crime Mapping 134
A Long-Standing Practice 134
Policing Looks at Crime and Place 134
Real-Time Crime Centers 136
Strategies and Tools for Crime Management 137
CompStat 137
Intelligence-Led Policing 138
Predictive Policing 139
Smart Policing: Combining the Above 140
Applying Social Media: Lessons from Boston’s Marathon
Bombing 142
Civic Apps Used to Fight Crime 142
Dedicated Software for Problem-Solving Tasks 143
Summary 143   •   Key Terms and Concepts 143   •   Items for
Review 144   •   Learn by Doing 144   •   Endnotes 144

Part IV Needed: Organizational Foundation

for Problem Solving 147

Chapter 8 Changing Agency Culture: Toward

Constitutional and Legitimate Policing 149
Learning Objectives 149
Test Your Knowledge 149
Introduction 150
First Things First: What Is a Police Organization’s “Culture”? 151
Revisiting the “New Professional” 152
A New Mindset 152
Again, “Guardians” or “Soldiers”? 153
Two Essentials for This Environment: Constitutional Policing
and Procedural Justice 153
The Constitution as “Boss” 153
Greater Cooperation Through Legitimacy 154
Angst from Hot Spot Policing and Other Strategies 154
Use of Force in the New Culture of Policing 155
Responding to Mass Demonstrations 155
x  Contents

Moving from a “Good” to “Great” Police Organization 156

The “Level 5 Leader” 156
“Moments of Truth” 157
Recruiting Quality Officers for Community Policing 157
The Applicant Pool 157
Attracting Candidates: Strategies 159
Workforce of the Future: From Baby Boomers to Millennials 161
Roles of Key Leaders 162
Beware the “Toxic Leader” 162
Chief Executives 162
Middle Managers 163
First-Line Supervisors 164
Summary 165   •   Key Terms and Concepts 165   •   Items for
Review 165   •   Learn by Doing 166   •   Endnotes 166

Chapter 9 Planning and Implementation:

Keys to Success 168
Learning Objectives 168
Test Your Knowledge 168
Introduction 169
Personal Perspective: Strategically Planning Your Future 170
Strategic Planning: Basic Elements 170
First and Foremost: A Forward-Thinking Perspective for Navigating
The Future 171
The Changing Face of Policing—In a Dire Economy 172
The Planning Document: A Guide for Implementation 173
Key Leaders and Components 173
Leadership and Administration 175
Human Resources 176
Field Operations 177
External Relations 178
Ten Ways to Undermine Community Policing and Problem
Solving 179
Resistance to Change: Using Force Field Analysis 180
You Be the Change Agent: Some Hands-on Activities 181
I. You Lead the Transition to Problem-Oriented Policing 181
II. Opening a POP Project 184
A Tool for Measuring Agency Implementation: CP-SAT 185
Examples of Planning and Implementation 185
Summary 187   •   Key Terms and Concepts 187   •   Items for
Review 187   •   Learn by Doing 187   •   Endnotes 187

Chapter 10 Training for Problem Solving: “Learning

by Doing” 189
Learning Objectives 189
Test Your Knowledge 189
Introduction 190
Training Police for Today’s Society: The Seattle Example 190
 Contents  xi

How to Train for Constitutional Policing

and Procedural Justice 191
Changing the Culture of Training 191
Fair and Impartial Policing Training 191
Training and Mentoring New Officers 191
Four Training Delivery Methods 192
Recruit Academy 193
Field Training Officer and Police Training Officer Programs 194
In-Service Training 194
Roll Call Training 195
Not to Be Discounted: The Value of Higher Education 195
Involving the Community in the Training Process 196
Organizing and Conducting Adult Training
and Education 197
The Two Dimensions of Training 197
Knowles’ Andragogy: Educating Adult Learners 197
Bloom’s Taxonomy 198
Problem-Based Learning, Generally 198
The Learning Organization 198
Technologies for the Task 199
Using “Gamification” 199
Utilizing Avatars 199
An “Educational Revolution”: E-Learning
and Distance Learning 200
Minimal Curricular Content for Problem Solving 201
Resources on the Web 203
Summary 204   •   Key Terms and Concepts 204   •   Items for
Review 205   •   Learn by Doing 205   •   Endnotes 205

Chapter 11 Evaluating and Assessing Outcomes:

Do the Responses “Measure Up”? 207
Learning Objectives 207
Test Your Knowledge 207
Introduction 208
Assessments Vis-a-Vis Impact Evaluations 208
Knowledge and Skills Program Evaluators Should Possess 210
Measures and Tools 211
Quantitative Measures 211
Qualitative Measures 211
Measurement Validity 211
Evaluating Organizations’ and Officers’
Problem-Solving Efforts 212
The Individual Level 213
The Organizational Level 213
The Social Level 214
Not to Be Overlooked: Community Surveys 216
Summary 217   •   Key Terms and Concepts 217   •   Items for
Review 218   •   Learn by Doing 218   •   Endnotes 218
xii  Contents

Part V Addressing Today’s Crime and Disorder  221

Chapter 12 Problem Solving in Practice: “What Works”

with Drugs, Youth Gangs and Violence,
and Neighborhood Disorder 223
Learning Objectives 223
Test Your Knowledge 223
Introduction 223
The (Changing) War on Drugs 224
Marijuana 224
Cocaine 225
Prescription Drug Abuse: When Jails Become Rehab Clinics 226
Methamphetamine 226
Heroin 227
Synthetic “Designer” Drugs 228
What Works: “Pulling Levers,” Legislation, HIDTA 228
High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas Program 229
Youth and Crime: Gangs, Guns, and Graffiti 230
Juvenile Offending Today 230
Youth Gangs: An Overview 231
What Works with Youth Gangs? 231
Gang Involvement with Human Trafficking 233
Gun Violence, Generally: Problem-Solving Approaches 233
Youth and Guns 233
Graffiti: What Works 234
Cyberbullying 236
What Can Police Do? 236
School Violence 237
What Can Police Do? 237
Neighborhood Disorder 238
Definitions, Problems, and Responses 238
Responding to Problems of Abandoned Buildings 239
Summary 240   •   Key Terms and Concepts 240   •   Items for
Review 241   •   Learn by Doing 241   •   Endnotes 241

Chapter 13 Addressing Offenders and Victims: Mental

Illness, Domestic Violence, Cyber Criminals,
and Human Trafficking 244
Learning Objectives 244
Test Your Knowledge 244
Introduction 245
Coping with the Mentally Ill Population 245
When the Problem Becomes Lethal 245
Front-End, Back-End Issues 246
What Can Police Do? The Success of CIT 246
Domestic Violence 248
Dangers and Approaches 248
The Family Justice Center Concept 250
 Contents  xiii

Cybercrime 251
Not Only in Film: Extent of Victimization 251
Types, Tactics, and Training 251
DHS Involvement 253
Identify Theft: Nature and Victim/Police Responses 253
General Considerations for an Effective Response Strategy 254
Human Trafficking 255
“Modern Day Slavery” for Victims 256
What Works? Collaboration Is Key 256
The T Visa 256
The Office of Victims of Crime 257
Additional Law Enforcement Efforts: The Diagnostic Center 257
Summary 258   •   Key Terms and Concepts 258   •   Items for
Review 258   •   Learn by Doing 258   •   Endnotes 258

Part VI Challenges Ahead 261

Chapter 14 Future Opportunities and Obstacles 263

Learning Objectives 263
Test Your Knowledge 263
Introduction 263
First Things First: Jettison the Jargon 264
Drivers and Factors Influencing the Future of Policing 265
Economic Impacts 265
Demographic Shifts 266
Technology 266
A Glimpse of What’s Here, What’s on the Horizon 267
Looking for Patterns, Making Predictions 267
New Tech Challenges Await 268
Four Considerations When Deploying New Technologies 269
Terrorism and Homeland Security 271
What Role for Local Police in Homeland Security? 271
Using Community Policing with Terrorism 271
Cybercrime and Community Policing 271
Applying Science to Policing 272
Need for Strong Police Leadership 272
Militarization of the Police 273
Transparency and Public Trust 273
Succession Planning 273
Civilianization 274
Keeping the Focus on Community Policing 274
Training 275
Summary 275   •   Key Terms and Concepts 275   •   Items for
Review 276   •   Learn by Doing 276   •   Endnotes 276

Answers 278
Appendix I Award-Winning Problem-Solving Case Studies 279
Appendix II Model Academic Curriculum for Problem-Oriented Policing 283
Credits 286
Index 290
xiv  Contents

New Topics in this Seventh Edition

In addition to updated information, case studies, exercises, and exhibits newly added throughout
the book, following are other substantively new materials added to this edition:
Chapter 1: Contributions of the federal government/COPS Office to community
policing
Chapter 2: A “new professionalism”; “guardians” or “warriors”? addressing fear of
crime; effects of economy; civilian review boards—blessing or curse?
Chapter 3: (Formerly Chapter 10) States crack down on sanctuary cities; lessons from
history and Ferguson; how to achieve harmony, justice, and policy; trans-
parency with Web sites and databases; calls for police body cameras; guard-
ian mindset; early intervention systems for identifying problem employees
Chapter 4: (New Chapter) Faces of terrorism—homegrown, lone wolf, cyberterrorist;
law enforcement strategies; legislative measures; drones; roles of local
police, community policing, social media
Chapter 5: “CHEERS” method for problem analysis; problem solving in New Zealand
Chapter 6: Problem-oriented policing, community, crime prevention as symbiotic rela-
tionship; community role in preventing crime and restoring anchor points
Chapter 7: IT comes to policing; federal stimulus; rationale for IT; exploiting young
officers’ flair for IT; choosing which tools to use; smart policing; using civic
apps and applying social media; dedicated software for problem solving
Chapter 8: Revisiting the “new professional’s” guardian mindset; constitutional polic-
ing and legitimacy; angst caused by hot spot policing; use of force in the
new culture of policing; responding to mass demonstrations
Chapter 9: Strategic planning example—planning one’s future; a forward-thinking per-
spective; examples of planning and implementation
Chapter 10: Police training for today’s society—Seattle’s model; technologies such as
gamification and use of avatars; E-learning and distance education;
resources on the Web
Chapter 11: Knowledge and skills evaluators should possess; quantitative and qualita-
tive measures; validity; the Evidence-Based Policing Matrix; evaluating
agencies’ and officers’ efforts; RAND’s benchmark program; Sweden’s use
of crime prevention committees
Chapter 12: The changing war on drugs (especially with marijuana, prescription drug
abuse, and synthetic drugs); problems and responses with neighborhood
disorder
Chapter 13: Cybercrime—types, police tactics, and federal efforts for addressing;
human trafficking problems and police strategies
Chapter 14: Technology, terrorism, cybercrime of the future, and what community
policing and problem solving can do to address them; applying science to
policing; need for strong police leadership (in several areas).
 Preface

This is a most exciting point in time to be studying (or working in) law enforcement, as evi-
denced by the fact that, since this book’s last (sixth) edition appeared, the new strategies (smart
policing, intelligence-led policing, predictive policing, and so on), technologies, and methods
that have come into being have changed the field to a major degree. Added to the already chal-
lenging philosophy and strategies of community- and problem-oriented policing, these even
newer strategies challenge the intellect and ability of today’s police officers to address crime and
disorder in ways that are more stimulating and exhilarating than ever before.
This book, like its six preceding editions, is what works in policing for combating crime
and disorder in our neighborhoods and communities. It is about the evolution of the latest era in
policing that began in the mid-1970s, one that centers on collaborating with the community and
other agencies and organizations that are responsible for community safety. It examines from
many perspectives a philosophy and style of policing that requires officers to obtain new knowl-
edge and tools for solving problems, and it is grounded in strategic thinking and planning to
enable agencies to keep up with the rapid societal changes in such areas as homeland defense.
This seventh edition is premised on the assumption that the reader is most likely an under-
graduate or graduate student studying criminal justice or policing, or instead a police practitioner
with a fundamental knowledge of police history and operations who is working in policing or a
government agency and is interested in learning about community policing and problem solving.
Citizens who are collaborating with police to resolve neighborhood problems in innovative ways
can also be well served by reading this book.
We also impart some of the major theories, research, practices (with myriad examples),
and processes that are being implemented under community policing and problem solving. Our
ongoing primary emphasis is on the practical aspects of problem-oriented policing—putting the
philosophy into daily practice. We continue to emphasize that problem-oriented policing is an
individualized, long-term process that involves fundamental institutional change, going beyond
such simple tactics as foot and bicycle patrols or neighborhood police stations; it redefines the
role of the officer on the street from crime fighter to problem solver; it forces a cultural transfor-
mation of the entire police agency, involving changes in recruiting, training, awards systems,
evaluations, and promotions.
It has been said that problem solving is not new in policing, that police officers have always
tried to solve problems in their daily work. True enough; but as is demonstrated throughout this
text, problem solving is not the same as solving problems. Problem solving in the context of
community policing is very different and considerably more complex, requiring that police offi-
cers identify and examine the underlying causes of recurring incidents of crime and disorder.
This policing approach thus seeks to make “street criminologists” of the officers, teaching them
to expand their focus on offenders to include crime settings and victims.
We also emphasize that this book is not a call to ignore or discard policing’s past methods,
nor do we espouse an altogether new philosophy of policing in its place. Instead, we recommend
that the police borrow from the wisdom of the past and adopt a holistic approach to the way
police organizations are learning to address public safety more successfully. This book describes
how many agencies should, and are, actively going about the process of revolutionizing their
philosophy and operations.

Organization and Contents of the Book

As indicated above, like its six predecessors, this book is distinguished by its applied approach.
In doing so, it showcases dozens of exhibits and additional case studies and examples of problem
solving in the field.
Also newly emphasized in this seventh edition are methods of policing a diverse society—
particularly disenfranchised minorities in the “post-Ferguson” era and the call for a re-
examination of police methods—as well as the fight against terrorism and applications of new
information technologies (IT) for problem solving. In addition, chapters will examine major
issues and challenging crime problems (e.g., drugs, gangs, youth and crime, neighborhood
xv
xvi  Preface

disorder, domestic violence, and human trafficking), crime prevention, changing agency culture,
evaluating problem-solving initiatives, cyberbullying and cybercrime, and special populations
(e.g., the mentally ill), and the future. A chapter-by-chapter breakdown follows.
Part I of the book describes what we term the “long road” to community policing and
problem solving. Chapter 1, Evolution, begins with a brief discussion of policing’s inception in
Britain’s and the efforts of Sir Robert Peel leading to the Metropolitan Police Act in England.
We also review the onset and evolution of policing in the United States, including a look at
policing’s three eras (focusing on the emergence of community problem-solving and new strate-
gies for this century and the significant assistance of federal resources); also briefly discussed is
the development of the community- and problem–oriented policing for today’s challenges and
the contributions of problem-oriented policing to homeland security. In Chapter 2, community
partnerships are examined in this time of tremendous police–citizen discord, opens with an
examination of what is meant by “community,” and (as noted above) why all such efforts to
involve citizens in addressing crime and disorder have led to community policing. Included is a
review of the need for a new professionalism, the police role as “guardians,” signs of a healthy
community, economic challenges facing police and society, the use of civilian review boards,
and how communities can connect with their courts and corrections organizations.
Part II includes two chapters that focus on two police priorities: managing diversity and
ensuring that our homeland is protected. Chapter 3, looking at diversity, thus examines the chal-
lenges posed by people immigrating to the United States, the history (often very combative) of
relations between minorities, how problem-oriented policing can enhance police–community
relations, and the need for police to become more transparent and address racial profiling
and bias-based policing. Chapter 4, Protecting the Homeland, examines the many faces of terror-
ism (to include cyberterrorism and bioterrorism) and what the local police and community
policing—with the assistance of legislation and technologies—are doing to combat it.
Part III centers on problem solving and its approaches, programs, and practices. Chapter 5,
Problem Solving, serves as a bulwark of the textbook as it specifically focuses on the develop-
ment and methods of community- and problem-oriented policing, which are complementary
core components. The problem-solving process, known as SARA (for scanning, analysis,
response, and assessment), is discussed as the primary tool for understanding crime and disorder.
Included are the basic principles of police problem solving, the role of the street officer within
it, some difficulties with problem solving, and some ways to tailor strategies to individual neigh-
borhoods. Crime prevention, discussed in Chapter 6, considers two important and contemporary
components for preventing crime: crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) and
situational crime prevention; included are discussions of which crime-prevention approaches
work, do not appear to be successful, and hold promise for crime prevention. Chapter 7, Tools
for Problem Solving, looks at how IT came to policing as well as the tools that are available for
crime analysis and other functions. Included are several relatively new tools for analyzing and
managing crime: CompStat, intelligence-led and predictive policing, social media, real-time
crime centers, and smart policing.
In Part IV, we examine the necessary organizational foundations required for community
policing and problem solving to flourish. In Chapter 8, Changing Agency Culture, we discuss
what is meant by organizational culture and the need for some police agencies to modify their
culture so as to become more constitutional and legitimate in the eyes of the public; how an orga-
nization can move from one that is “good” to being “great”; recruiting quality officers; and the
roles and responsibilities of chief executives, middle managers, supervisors, and rank-and-file
officers. Chapter 9, Planning and Implementation, discusses the key functions of preparing and
initiating problem-oriented policing, which must be accomplished by thoughtfully laying the
proper foundation; we also explain the strategic planning process, roles of key leaders in this
process, addressing resistance to change, and how to measure whether or not planning and
implementation were properly accomplished. Chapter 10 addresses the challenge of providing
the best means and types of training, particularly in the context of engaging in constitutional, fair
and impartial policing; we also consider the value of higher education, what works best for adult-
and problem-based learning, and some technological approaches to training and the basics of a
curriculum. The last chapter in this part, Chapter 11, confronts the issue of evaluation, including
the different tools and methods for doing so. An ongoing challenge for community policing and
problem solving is determining whether or not police responses to crime were successful.
 Preface  xvii

Part V focuses on specific methods and challenges for dealing with crime and disorder in
our society. In Chapter 12, we describe the application of problem-solving methods to drug
abuse, youth gangs, and neighborhood violence. Chapter 13 continues this same theme, examin-
ing what works with the mentally ill population, domestic violence, cybercrime (including iden-
tity theft), and human trafficking.
Finally, in Part VI, we look at challenges that will likely confront the police in the future.
Chapter 14 explores what kinds of factors will shape and drive change, to include the language
of policing, the economy and demographics, technologies, terrorism, cybercrime, applying sci-
ence to policing, and the need for strong leadership in several areas (e.g., militarization, transpar-
ency, succession planning, civilianization, and training).
Two appendices conclude the text; the first includes several award-winning case studies of
excellent problem solving, and an example of a problem-oriented policing training curriculum.
We believe this book comprehensively lays out for today’s student how problem-oriented
policing should be, and is being applied in the United States. As noted above, the major strength
of this book lies in its many case studies, exhibits, and “learn by doing” segments, which demon-
strate how the concept is planned, implemented, operationalized, and evaluated. As Samuel
Johnson wrote, “Example is always more efficacious than precept.”
We are extremely grateful for the helpful suggestions made by the following reviewers of
this edition: Jay Berman, New Jersey City University; Douglas Davis, Mary Baldwin College;
Jennifer Estis-Sumerel, Itawamba Community College; and Michael Pittaro, American Military
University.

INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS
Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. Includes content outlines for classroom discussion,
teaching suggestions, and answers to selected end-of-chapter questions from the text. This also
contains a Word document version of the test bank.
TestGen. This computerized test generation system gives you maximum flexibility in creating
and administering tests on paper, electronically, or online. It provides state-of-the-art features for
viewing and editing test bank questions, dragging a selected question into a test you are creating,
and printing sleek, formatted tests in a variety of layouts. Select test items from test banks
included with TestGen for quick test creation, or write your own questions from scratch.
TestGen’s random generator provides the option to display different text or calculated number
values each time questions are used.
PowerPoint Presentations. Our presentations are clear and straightforward. Photos, illustra-
tions, charts, and tables from the book are included in the presentations when applicable.
To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to request an instructor access code.
Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an instructor access code.
Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming email, including an instructor
access code. Once you have received your code, go to the site and log on for full instructions on
downloading the materials you wish to use.

ALTERNATE VERSIONS
eBooks This text is also available in multiple eBook formats. These are an exciting new choice
for students looking to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the printed textbook, stu-
dents can purchase an electronic version of the same content. With an eTextbook, students can
search the text, make notes online, print out reading assignments that incorporate lecture notes,
and bookmark important passages for later review. For more information, visit your favorite
online eBook reseller or visit www.mypearsonstore.com.
Ken Peak
Ron Glensor
 About the Authors

Kenneth J. Peak, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus and former chairman of the criminal justice
department at the University of Nevada, Reno, where he was named “Teacher of the Year” by
the UNR Honor Society and also served as acting director of public safety. He has authored or
coauthored 31 books on policing, justice administration, women in law enforcement, and police
supervision and management; two historical books (on bootlegging and temperance); and more
than 60 journal articles and additional book chapters on a wide range of justice-related subjects.
He has served as chairman of the Police Section, Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences and a
past president of the Western Association of Criminal Justice. Prior to coming to UNR, Dr. Peak
held positions as a municipal police officer, criminal justice planner; director of a Four-State
Technical Assistance Institute; director of university police at Pittsburg State University; and
assistant professor at Wichita State University. He received two gubernatorial appointments to
statewide criminal justice committees while in Kansas and holds a doctorate from the University
of Kansas.
Ronald W. Glensor, Ph.D., is an assistant chief (retired) of the Reno, Nevada, Police
Department (RPD). He has accumulated more than 36 years of police experience and com-
manded the department’s patrol, administration, and detective divisions. In addition to being
actively involved in RPD’s implementation of community-oriented policing and problem
solving since 1987, he has provided such training to thousands of officers, elected officials,
and community members representing jurisdictions throughout the United States as well as
Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. He is also a judge for the Herman Goldstein
International Problem Oriented Policing Awards held annually throughout the nation.
Dr. Glensor was the 1997 recipient of the prestigious Gary P. Hayes Award, conferred by
the Police Executive Research Forum, recognizing his contributions and leadership in the
policing field. Internationally, he is a frequent featured speaker on a variety of policing
issues. He served a six-month fellowship as problem-oriented policing coordinator with the
Police Executive Research Forum in Washington, D.C., and received an Atlantic Fellowship
in public policy, studying repeat victimization at the Home Office in London. He is coauthor
of Police Supervision and Management in an Era of Community Policing (third edition) and
was coeditor of Policing Communities: Understanding Crime and Solving Problems.
Dr. Glensor has also published in several journals and trade magazines, is an adjunct profes-
sor at the University of Nevada, Reno, and instructs at area police academies and criminal
justice programs. He holds a doctorate in political science and a master’s of public adminis-
tration from the University of Nevada, Reno.

xviii
 Pa r t I
▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

The Long Road to Community

Policing and Problem Solving
This part consists of two chapters, which together will map the movement away from
traditional policing methods, the development of community policing and problem
solving, and the important role of the community in those processes. Chapter 1 traces
the professionalizing of policing in England and its subsequent journey to, and
elaboration in, the United States, including its various iterations and strategies;
Chapter 2 focuses on the community’s role in shaping, guiding, and controlling the
police as well as the courts, and corrections subsystems.

1
This page intentionally left blank
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
for

l = 0, let H = H0, and p = p0;

and for

l = l, let H = H1, and p = p1.

log (H1/H0) + (gΩ2 / W2cτ) (p12 − p02) + ζ l / m = 0.

(5a)

where p0 is the greater pressure and p1 the less, and the flow is from A0 towards A1.

By replacing W and H,

log (p0/p1) + (gcτ / u02p02) (p12 − p02 + ζ l/m = 0

(6)

Hence the initial velocity in the pipe is

u0 = √ [{gcτ (p02 − p12)} / {p02 (ζ l/m + log (p0 / p1) }].

(7)

When l is great, log p0/p1 is comparatively small, and then

u0 = √ [ (gcτm/ζ l) {(p02 − p12) / p02} ],

(7a)

a very simple and easily used expression. For pipes of circular section m = d/4, where d is the diameter:
—

u0 = √ [ (gcτd / 4ζ l) {(p02 − p12) / p02} ];

(7b)

or approximately

u0 = (1.1319 − 0.7264 p1/p0) √ (gcτd / 4ζ l).

(7c)

§ 91. Coefficient of Friction for Air.—A discussion by Professor Unwin of the experiments by Culley and
Sabine on the rate of transmission of light carriers through pneumatic tubes, in which there is steady
flow of air not sensibly affected by any resistances other than surface friction, furnished the value ζ =
.007. The pipes were lead pipes, slightly moist, 21⁄4 in. (0.187 ft.) in diameter, and in lengths of 2000 to
nearly 6000 ft.

In some experiments on the flow of air through cast-iron pipes A. Arson found the coefficient of
friction to vary with the velocity and diameter of the pipe. Putting

ζ = α/v + β,
(8)

he obtained the following values—

Diameter of Pipe ζ for 100 ft.

α β
in feet. per second.
 1.64 .00129 .00483 .00484
1.07 .00972 .00640 .00650
.83 .01525 .00704 .00719
.338 .03604 .00941 .00977
.266 .03790 .00959 .00997
.164 .04518 .01167 .01212

It is worth while to try if these numbers can be expressed in the form proposed by Darcy for water.
For a velocity of 100 ft. per second, and without much error for higher velocities, these numbers agree
fairly with the formula

ζ = 0.005 (1 + 3/10d),
(9)

which only differs from Darcy’s value for water in that the second term, which is always small except for
very small pipes, is larger.

Some later experiments on a very large scale, by E. Stockalper at the St Gotthard Tunnel, agree
better with the value

ζ = 0.0028 (1 + 3/10d).

These pipes were probably less rough than Arson’s.

When the variation of pressure is very small, it is no longer safe to neglect the variation of level of the
pipe. For that case we may neglect the work done by expansion, and then

z0 − z1 − p0/G0 − p1/G1 − ζ (v2/2g) (l/m) = 0,

(10)

precisely equivalent to the equation for the flow of water, z0 and z1 being the elevations of the two ends
of the pipe above any datum, p0 and p1 the pressures, G0 and G1 the densities, and v the mean velocity
in the pipe. This equation may be used for the flow of coal gas.

§ 92. Distribution of Pressure in a Pipe in which Air is Flowing.—From equation (7a) it results that the
pressure p, at l ft. from that end of the pipe where the pressure is p0, is

p = p0 √ (1 − ζ lu02 / mgcτ);
(11)

which is of the form

p = √ (al + b)

for any given pipe with given end pressures. The curve of free surface level for the pipe is, therefore, a
parabola with horizontal axis. Fig. 100 shows calculated curves of pressure for two of Sabine’s
experiments, in one of which the pressure was greater than atmospheric pressure, and in the other less
than atmospheric pressure. The observed pressures are given in brackets and the calculated pressures
without brackets. The pipe was the pneumatic tube between Fenchurch Street and the Central Station,
2818 yds. in length. The pressures are given in inches of mercury.
 Fig. 100.

Variation of Velocity in the Pipe.—Let p0, u0 be the pressure and velocity at a given section of the
pipe; p, u, the pressure and velocity at any other section. From equation (3a)

up = cτW / Ω = constant;

so that, for any given uniform pipe,

up = u0p0,
u = u0p0 / p;
(12)

which gives the velocity at any section in terms of the pressure, which has already been determined.
Fig. 101 gives the velocity curves for the two experiments of Culley and Sabine, for which the pressure
curves have already been drawn. It will be seen that the velocity increases considerably towards that
end of the pipe where the pressure is least.

Fig. 101.

§ 93. Weight of Air Flowing per Second.—The weight of air discharged per second is (equation 3a)—

W = Ωu0p0 / cτ.

From equation (7b), for a pipe of circular section and diameter d,

W = 1⁄4π √ (gd5 (p02 − p12) / ζ lcτ),

= .611 √ (d5 (p02 − p12) / ζ lτ).
(13)
Approximately

W = (.6916p0 − .4438p1) (d5 / ζ lτ)1/2.

(13a)

§ 94. Application to the Case of Pneumatic Tubes for the Transmission of Messages.—In Paris, Berlin,
London, and other towns, it has been found cheaper to transmit messages in pneumatic tubes than to
telegraph by electricity. The tubes are laid underground with easy curves; the messages are made into a
roll and placed in a light felt carrier, the resistance of which in the tubes in London is only 3⁄4 oz. A
current of air forced into the tube or drawn through it propels the carrier. In most systems the current
of air is steady and continuous, and the carriers are introduced or removed without materially altering
the flow of air.

Time of Transit through the Tube.—Putting t for the time of transit from 0 to l,

t= ∫ dl/u,
0l

From (4a) neglecting dH/H, and putting m = d/4,

dl = gdΩ2p dp / 2ζW2cr.

From (1) and (3)

u = Wcτ / pΩ;
dl/u = gdΩ3p2 dp / 2ζW3c2τ2;

t= ∫ pp01 g dΩ3 p2 dp / 2ζW3c2τ2,

= g dΩ3 (p03 − p13) / 6ζW3c2τ2.
(14)

But

W = p0u0Ω / cτ;

∴ t = gdcτ (p03 − p13) / 6ζp03u03,

= ζ1/2 l3/2 (p03 − p13) / 6(gcτd)1/2 (p02 − p12)3/2;
(15)

If τ = 521°, corresponding to 60° F.,

t = .001412 ζ1/2 l3/2 (p03 − p13) / d1/2 (p02 − p12)3/2;

(15a)

which gives the time of transmission in terms of the initial and final pressures and the dimensions of the
tube.

Mean Velocity of Transmission.—The mean velocity is l/t; or, for τ = 521°,

umean = 0.708 √ {d (p02 − p12)3/2 / ζ l (p03 − p13)}.

(16)

The following table gives some results:—

 Absolute
Mean Velocities for Tubes of a
Pressures in
length in feet.
℔ per sq. in.
p0 p1 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Vacuum 15 5 99.4 70.3 57.4 49.7 44.5
Working 15 10 67.2 47.5 38.8 34.4 30.1
20 15 57.2 40.5 33.0 28.6 25.6
Pressure
25 15 74.6 52.7 43.1 37.3 33.3
Working
30 15 84.7 60.0 49.0 42.4 37.9

Limiting Velocity in the Pipe when the Pressure at one End is diminished indefinitely.—If in the last
equation there be put p1 = 0, then

u′mean = 0.708 √ (d / ζ l);

where the velocity is independent of the pressure p0 at the other end, a result which apparently must
be absurd. Probably for long pipes, as for orifices, there is a limit to the ratio of the initial and terminal
pressures for which the formula is applicable.

X. FLOW IN RIVERS AND CANALS

§ 95. Flow of Water in Open Canals and Rivers.—When water flows in a pipe the section at any point
is determined by the form of the boundary. When it flows in an open channel with free upper surface,
the section depends on the velocity due to the dynamical conditions.

Suppose water admitted to an unfilled canal. The channel will gradually fill, the section and velocity at
each point gradually changing. But if the inflow to the canal at its head is constant, the increase of cross
section and diminution of velocity at each point attain after a time a limit. Thenceforward the section
and velocity at each point are constant, and the motion is steady, or permanent regime is established.

If when the motion is steady the sections of the stream are all equal, the motion is uniform. By
hypothesis, the inflow Ωv is constant for all sections, and Ω is constant; therefore v must be constant
also from section to section. The case is then one of uniform steady motion. In most artificial channels
the form of section is constant, and the bed has a uniform slope. In that case the motion is uniform, the
depth is constant, and the stream surface is parallel to the bed. If when steady motion is established
the sections are unequal, the motion is steady motion with varying velocity from section to section.
Ordinary rivers are in this condition, especially where the flow is modified by weirs or obstructions.
Short unobstructed lengths of a river may be treated as of uniform section without great error, the
mean section in the length being put for the actual sections.

In all actual streams the different fluid filaments have different

velocities, those near the surface and centre moving faster than those
near the bottom and sides. The ordinary formulae for the flow of
streams rest on a hypothesis that this variation of velocity may be
neglected, and that all the filaments may be treated as having a
common velocity equal to the mean velocity of the stream. On this
Fig. 102.
hypothesis, a plane layer abab (fig. 102) between sections normal to
the direction of motion is treated as sliding down the channel to a′a′b′b′ without deformation. The
component of the weight parallel to the channel bed balances the friction against the channel, and in
estimating the friction the velocity of rubbing is taken to be the mean velocity of the stream. In actual
streams, however, the velocity of rubbing on which the friction depends is not the mean velocity of the
stream, and is not in any simple relation with it, for channels of different forms. The theory is therefore
obviously based on an imperfect hypothesis. However, by taking variable values for the coefficient of
friction, the errors of the ordinary formulae are to a great extent neutralized, and they may be used
without leading to practical errors. Formulae have been obtained based on less restricted hypotheses,
but at present they are not practically so reliable, and are more complicated than the formulae obtained
in the manner described above.

§ 96. Steady Flow of Water with Uniform Velocity in Channels of Constant Section.—Let aa′, bb′ (fig.
103) be two cross sections normal to the direction of motion at a distance dl. Since the mass aa′bb′
moves uniformly, the external forces acting on it are in equilibrium. Let Ω be the area of the cross
sections, χ the wetted perimeter, pq + qr + rs, of a section. Then the quantity m = Ω/χ is termed the
hydraulic mean depth of the section. Let v be the mean velocity of the stream, which is taken as the
common velocity of all the particles, i, the slope or fall of the stream in feet, per foot, being the ratio
bc/ab.

Fig. 103.

The external forces acting on aa′bb′ parallel to the direction of motion are three:—(a) The pressures
on aa′ and bb′, which are equal and opposite since the sections are equal and similar, and the mean
pressures on each are the same. (b) The component of the weight W of the mass in the direction of
motion, acting at its centre of gravity g. The weight of the mass aa′bb′ is GΩ dl, and the component of
the weight in the direction of motion is GΩdl × the cosine of the angle between Wg and ab, that is,
GΩdl cos abc = GΩ dl bc/ab = GΩidl. (c) There is the friction of the stream on the sides and bottom of
the channel. This is proportional to the area χdl of rubbing surface and to a function of the velocity
which may be written ƒ(v); ƒ(v) being the friction per sq. ft. at a velocity v. Hence the friction is −χ dl
ƒ(v). Equating the sum of the forces to zero,

GΩi dl − χ dl ƒ(v) = 0,
ƒ(v) / G = Ωi / χ = mi.
(1)

But it has been already shown (§ 66) that ƒ(v) = ζGv2/2g,

∴ ζv2 / 2g = mi.
(2)

This may be put in the form

 v = √ (2g/ζ) √ (mi) = c √ (mi);
(2a)

where c is a coefficient depending on the roughness and form of the channel.

The coefficient of friction ζ varies greatly with the degree of roughness of the channel sides, and
somewhat also with the velocity. It must also be made to depend on the absolute dimensions of the
section, to eliminate the error of neglecting the variations of velocity in the cross section. A common
mean value assumed for ζ is 0.00757. The range of values will be discussed presently.

It is often convenient to estimate the fall of the stream in feet per mile, instead of in feet per foot. If f
is the fall in feet per mile,

f = 5280 i.

Putting this and the above value of ζ in (2a), we get the very simple and long-known approximate
formula for the mean velocity of a stream—

v = 1⁄4 1⁄2 √ (2mf).

(3)

The flow down the stream per second, or discharge of the stream, is

Q = Ωv = Ωc √ (mi).
(4)

§ 97. Coefficient of Friction for Open Channels.—Various expressions have been proposed for the
coefficient of friction for channels as for pipes. Weisbach, giving attention chiefly to the variation of the
coefficient of friction with the velocity, proposed an expression of the form

ζ = α (1 + β/v),
(5)

and from 255 experiments obtained for the constants the values

α = 0.007409; β = 0.1920.

This gives the following values at different velocities:—

v= 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 11⁄2 2 3 5 7 1

ζ= 0.01215 0.01025 0.00944 0.00883 0.00836 0.00812 0.90788 0.00769 0.00761 0.00

In using this value of ζ when v is not known, it is best to proceed by approximation.

§ 98. Darcy and Bazin’s Expression for the Coefficient of Friction.—Darcy and Bazin’s researches have
shown that ζ varies very greatly for different degrees of roughness of the channel bed, and that it also
varies with the dimensions of the channel. They give for ζ an empirical expression (similar to that for
pipes) of the form

ζ = α (1 + β / m);
(6)
where m is the hydraulic mean depth. For different kinds of channels they give the following values of
the coefficient of friction:—

Kind of Channel. α β
I. Very smooth channels, sides of smooth cement or planed timber .00294 0.10
II. Smooth channels, sides of ashlar, brickwork, planks .00373 0.23
III. Rough channels, sides of rubble masonry or pitched with stone .00471 0.82
IV. Very rough canals in earth .00549 4.10
V. Torrential streams encumbered with detritus .00785 5.74

The last values (Class V.) are not Darcy and Bazin’s, but are taken from experiments by Ganguillet and
Kutter on Swiss streams.

The following table very much facilitates the calculation of the mean velocity and discharge of
channels, when Darcy and Bazin’s value of the coefficient of friction is used. Taking the general formula
for the mean velocity already given in equation (2a) above,

v = c √ (mi),

where c = √ (2g/ζ), the following table gives values of c for channels of different degrees of roughness,
and for such values of the hydraulic mean depths as are likely to occur in practical calculations:—

Values of c in v = c √ (mi), deduced from Darcy and Bazin’s Values.

Smooth Rough Very Rough Excessively

Hydraulic Very Smooth
Channels. Channels. Channels. Rough Channels
Mean. Channels.
Ashlar or Rubble Canals in encumbered
Depth = m. Cement.
Brickwork. Masonry. Earth. with Detritus.
.25 125 95 57 26 18.5
.5 135 110 72 36 25.6
.75 139 116 81 42 30.8
1.0 141 119 87 48 34.9
1.5 143 122 94 56 41.2
2.0 144 124 98 62 46.0
2.5 145 126 101 67 ..
3.0 145 126 104 70 53
3.5 146 127 105 73 ..
4.0 146 128 106 76 58
4.5 146 128 107 78 ..
5.0 146 128 108 80 62
5.5 146 129 109 82 ..
6.0 147 129 110 84 65
6.5 147 129 110 85 ..
7.0 147 129 110 86 67
7.5 147 129 111 87 ..
8.0 147 130 111 88 69
 8.5 147 130 112 89 ..
9.0 147 130 112 90 71
9.5 147 130 112 90 ..
10.0 147 130 112 91 72
11 147 130 113 92 ..
12 147 130 113 93 74
13 147 130 113 94 ..
14 147 130 113 95 ..
15 147 130 114 96 77
16 147 130 114 97 ..
17 147 130 114 97 ..
18 147 130 114 98 ..
20 147 131 114 98 80
25 148 131 115 100 ..
30 148 131 115 102 83
40 148 131 116 103 85
50 148 131 116 104 86
∞ 148 131 117 108 91

§ 99. Ganguillet and Kutter’s Modified Darcy Formula.—Starting from the general expression v =
c√mi, Ganguillet and Kutter examined the variations of c for a wider variety of cases than those
discussed by Darcy and Bazin. Darcy and Bazin’s experiments were confined to channels of moderate
section, and to a limited variation of slope. Ganguillet and Kutter brought into the discussion two very
distinct and important additional series of results. The gaugings of the Mississippi by A. A. Humphreys
and H. L. Abbot afford data of discharge for the case of a stream of exceptionally large section and or
very low slope. On the other hand, their own measurements of the flow in the regulated channels of
some Swiss torrents gave data for cases in which the inclination and roughness of the channels were
exceptionally great. Darcy and Bazin’s experiments alone were conclusive as to the dependence of the
coefficient c on the dimensions of the channel and on its roughness of surface. Plotting values of c for
channels of different inclination appeared to indicate that it also depended on the slope of the stream.
Taking the Mississippi data only, they found

c = 256 for an inclination of 0.0034 per thousand,

= 154 ” ” 0.02 ”

so that for very low inclinations no constant value of c independent of the slope would furnish good
values of the discharge. In small rivers, on the other hand, the values of c vary little with the slope. As
regards the influence of roughness of the sides of the channel a different law holds. For very small
channels differences of roughness have a great influence on the discharge, but for very large channels
different degrees of roughness have but little influence, and for indefinitely large channels the influence
of different degrees of roughness must be assumed to vanish. The coefficients given by Darcy and Bazin
are different for each of the classes of channels of different roughness, even when the dimensions of
the channel are infinite. But, as it is much more probable that the influence of the nature of the sides
diminishes indefinitely as the channel is larger, this must be regarded as a defect in their formula.
 Comparing their own measurements in torrential streams in Switzerland with those of Darcy and
Bazin, Ganguillet and Kutter found that the four classes of coefficients proposed by Darcy and Bazin
were insufficient to cover all cases. Some of the Swiss streams gave results which showed that the
roughness of the bed was markedly greater than in any of the channels tried by the French engineers.
It was necessary therefore in adopting the plan of arranging the different channels in classes of
approximately similar roughness to increase the number of classes. Especially an additional class was
required for channels obstructed by detritus.

To obtain a new expression for the coefficient in the formula

v = √ (2g / ζ) √ (mi) = c √ (mi),

Ganguillet and Kutter proceeded in a purely empirical way. They found that an expression of the form

c = α / (1 + β/√ m)

could be made to fit the experiments somewhat better than Darcy’s expression. Inverting this, we get

1/c = 1/α + β/α √ m,

an equation to a straight line having 1/√m for abscissa, 1/c for ordinate, and inclined to the axis of
abscissae at an angle the tangent of which is β/α.

Plotting the experimental values of 1/c and 1/√ m, the points so found indicated a curved rather than
a straight line, so that β must depend on α. After much comparison the following form was arrived at—

c = (A + l/n) / (1 + An / √ m),

where n is a coefficient depending only on the roughness of the sides of the channel, and A and l are
new coefficients, the value of which remains to be determined. From what has been already stated, the
coefficient c depends on the inclination of the stream, decreasing as the slope i increases.

Let

A = a + p/i.

Then

c = (a + l/n + p/i) / {1 + (a + p/i) n/√ m},

the form of the expression for c ultimately adopted by Ganguillet and Kutter.

For the constants a, l, p Ganguillet and Kutter obtain the values 23, 1 and 0.00155 for metrical
measures, or 41.6, 1.811 and 0.00281 for English feet. The coefficient of roughness n is found to vary
from 0.008 to 0.050 for either metrical or English measures.

The most practically useful values of the coefficient of roughness n are given in the following table:—

Coefficient of
Nature of Sides of Channel.
Roughness n.

Well-planed timber 0.009

Cement plaster 0.010
Plaster of cement with one-third sand 0.011
 Unplaned planks 0.012
Ashlar and brickwork 0.013
Canvas on frames 0.015
Rubble masonry 0.017
Canals in very firm gravel 0.020
Rivers and canals in perfect order, free from stones or weeds 0.025
Rivers and canals in moderately good order, not quite free
0.030
from stones and weeds
Rivers and canals in bad order, with weeds and detritus 0.035
Torrential streams encumbered with detritus 0.050

Ganguillet and Kutter’s formula is so cumbrous that it is difficult to use without the aid of tables.

Lowis D’A. Jackson published complete and extensive tables for facilitating the use of the Ganguillet
and Kutter formula (Canal and Culvert Tables, London, 1878). To lessen calculation he puts the formula
in this form:—

M = n (41.6 + 0.00281/i);

v = (√ m/n) {(M + 1.811) / (M + √m)} √ (mi).

The following table gives a selection of values of M, taken from Jackson’s tables:—

Values of M for n =
i
0.010 0.012 0.015 0.017 0.020 0.025 0.030
.00001 3.2260 3.8712 4.8390 5.4842 6.4520 8.0650 9.6780
.00002 1.8210 2.1852 2.7315 3.0957 3.6420 4.5525 5.4630
.00004 1.1185 1.3422 1.6777 1.9014 2.2370 2.7962 3.3555
.00006 0.8843 1.0612 1.3264 1.5033 1.7686 2.2107 2.6529
.00008 0.7672 0.9206 1.1508 1.3042 1.5344 1.9180 2.3016
.00010 0.6970 0.8364 1.0455 1.1849 1.3940 1.7425 2.0910
.00025 0.5284 0.6341 0.7926 0.8983 1.0568 1.3210 1.5852
.00050 0.4722 0.5666 0.7083 0.8027 0.9444 1.1805 1.4166
.00075 0.4535 0.5442 0.6802 0.7709 0.9070 1.1337 1.3605
.00100 0.4441 0.5329 0.6661 0.7550 0.8882 1.1102 1.3323
.00200 0.4300 0.5160 0.6450 0.7310 0.8600 1.0750 1.2900
.00300 0.4254 0.5105 0.6381 0.7232 0.8508 1.0635 1.2762

A difficulty in the use of this formula is the selection of the coefficient of roughness. The difficulty is
one which no theory will overcome, because no absolute measure of the roughness of stream beds is
possible. For channels lined with timber or masonry the difficulty is not so great. The constants in that
case are few and sufficiently defined. But in the case of ordinary canals and rivers the case is different,
the coefficients having a much greater range. For artificial canals in rammed earth or gravel n varies
from 0.0163 to 0.0301. For natural channels or rivers n varies from 0.020 to 0.035.

In Jackson’s opinion even Kutter’s numerous classes of channels seem inadequately graduated, and
he proposes for artificial canals the following classification:—
 I. Canals in very firm gravel, in perfect order n = 0.02
II. Canals in earth, above the average in order n = 0.0225
III. Canals in earth, in fair order n = 0.025
IV. Canals in earth, below the average in order n = 0.0275
V. Canals in earth, in rather bad order, partially
n = 0.03
overgrown with weeds and obstructed by detritus.

Ganguillet and Kutter’s formula has been considerably used partly from its adoption in calculating
tables for irrigation work in India. But it is an empirical formula of an unsatisfactory form. Some
engineers apparently have assumed that because it is complicated it must be more accurate than
simpler formulae. Comparison with the results of gaugings shows that this is not the case. The term
involving the slope was introduced to secure agreement with some early experiments on the Mississippi,
and there is strong reason for doubting the accuracy of these results.

§ 100. Bazin’s New Formula.—Bazin subsequently re-examined all the trustworthy gaugings of flow in
channels and proposed a modification of the original Darcy formula which appears to be more
satisfactory than any hitherto suggested (Étude d’une nouvelle formule, Paris, 1898). He points out that
Darcy’s original formula, which is of the form mi/v2 = α + β/m, does not agree with experiments on
channels as well as with experiments on pipes. It is an objection to it that if m increases indefinitely the
limit towards which mi/v2 tends is different for different values of the roughness. It would seem that if
the dimensions of a canal are indefinitely increased the variation of resistance due to differing
roughness should vanish. This objection is met if it is assumed that √ (mi/v2) = α + β/√ m, so that if a
is a constant mi/v2 tends to the limit a when m increases. A very careful discussion of the results of
gaugings shows that they can be expressed more satisfactorily by this new formula than by Ganguillet
and Kutter’s. Putting the equation in the form ζv2/2g = mi, ζ = 0.002594 (1 + γ/√ m), where γ has the
following values:—

I. Very smooth sides, cement, planed plank, γ = 0.109

II. Smooth sides, planks, brickwork 0.290
III. Rubble masonry sides 0.833
IV. Sides of very smooth earth, or pitching 1.539
V. Canals in earth in ordinary condition 2.353
VI. Canals in earth exceptionally rough 3.168

§ 101. The Vertical Velocity Curve.—If at each point along a vertical representing the depth of a
stream, the velocity at that point is plotted horizontally, the curve obtained is the vertical velocity curve
and it has been shown by many observations that it approximates to a parabola with horizontal axis.
The vertex of the parabola is at the level of the greatest velocity. Thus in fig. 104 OA is the vertical at
which velocities are observed; v0 is the surface; vz the maximum and vd the bottom velocity. B C D is
the vertical velocity curve which corresponds with a parabola having its vertex at C. The mean velocity
at the vertical is

vm = 1⁄3 [2vz + vd + (dz/d) (v0 − vd)].

 The Horizontal Velocity Curve.—Similarly if at each point along a
horizontal representing the width of the stream the velocities are
plotted, a curve is obtained called the horizontal velocity curve. In
streams of symmetrical section this is a curve symmetrical about the
centre line of the stream. The velocity varies little near the centre of the
stream, but very rapidly near the banks. In unsymmetrical sections the
greatest velocity is at the point where the stream is deepest, and the
general form of the horizontal velocity curve is roughly similar to the
section of the stream.
Fig. 104.
§ 102. Curves or Contours of Equal Velocity.—If velocities are
observed at a number of points at different widths and depths in a stream, it is possible to draw curves
on the cross section through points at which the velocity is the same. These represent contours of a
solid, the volume of which is the discharge of the stream per second. Fig. 105 shows the vertical and
horizontal velocity curves and the contours of equal velocity in a rectangular channel, from one of
Bazin’s gaugings.

§ 103. Experimental Observations on the Vertical Velocity Curve.—A preliminary difficulty arises in
observing the velocity at a given point in a stream because the velocity rapidly varies, the motion not
being strictly steady. If an average of several velocities at the same point is taken, or the average
velocity for a sensible period of time, this average is found to be constant. It may be inferred that
though the velocity at a point fluctuates about a mean value, the fluctuations being due to eddying
motions superposed on the general motion of the stream, yet these fluctuations produce effects which
disappear in the mean of a series of observations and, in calculating the volume of flow, may be
disregarded.

Fig. 105.

In the next place it is found that in most of the best observations on the velocity in streams, the
greatest velocity at any vertical is found not at the surface but at some distance below it. In various
river gaugings the depth dz at the centre of the stream has been found to vary from 0 to 0.3d.

§ 104. Influence of the Wind.—In the experiments on the Mississippi the vertical velocity curve in
calm weather was found to agree fairly with a parabola, the greatest velocity being at 3⁄10ths of the
depth of the stream from the surface. With a wind blowing down stream the surface velocity is
increased, and the axis of the parabola approaches the surface. On the contrary, with a wind blowing up
stream the surface velocity is diminished, and the axis of the parabola is lowered, sometimes to half the
depth of the stream. The American observers drew from their observations the conclusion that there
was an energetic retarding action at the surface of a stream like that due to the bottom and sides. If
there were such a retarding action the position of the filament of maximum velocity below the surface
would be explained.

It is not difficult to understand that a wind acting on surface ripples or waves should accelerate or
retard the surface motion of the stream, and the Mississippi results may be accepted so far as showing
that the surface velocity of a stream is variable when the mean velocity of the stream is constant.
Hence observations of surface velocity by floats or otherwise should only be made in very calm weather.
But it is very difficult to suppose that, in still air, there is a resistance at the free surface of the stream at
all analogous to that at the sides and bottom. Further, in very careful experiments, P. P. Boileau found
the maximum velocity, though raised a little above its position for calm weather, still at a considerable
distance below the surface, even when the wind was blowing down stream with a velocity greater than
that of the stream, and when the action of the air must have been an accelerating and not a retarding
action. A much more probable explanation of the diminution of the velocity at and near the free surface
is that portions of water, with a diminished velocity from retardation by the sides or bottom, are thrown
off in eddying masses and mingle with the rest of the stream. These eddying masses modify the velocity
in all parts of the stream, but have their greatest influence at the free surface. Reaching the free
surface they spread out and remain there, mingling with the water at that level and diminishing the
velocity which would otherwise be found there.

Influence of the Wind on the Depth at which the Maximum Velocity is found.—In the gaugings of the
Mississippi the vertical velocity curve was found to agree well with a parabola having a horizontal axis at
some distance below the water surface, the ordinate of the parabola at the axis being the maximum
velocity of the section. During the gaugings the force of the wind was registered on a scale ranging
from 0 for a calm to 10 for a hurricane. Arranging the velocity curves in three sets—(1) with the wind
blowing up stream, (2) with the wind blowing down stream, (3) calm or wind blowing across stream—it
was found that an upstream wind lowered, and a down-stream wind raised, the axis of the parabolic
velocity curve. In calm weather the axis was at 3⁄10ths of the total depth from the surface for all
conditions of the stream.

Let h′ be the depth of the axis of the parabola, m the hydraulic mean depth, f the number expressing
the force of the wind, which may range from +10 to −10, positive if the wind is up stream, negative if it
is down stream. Then Humphreys and Abbot find their results agree with the expression

h′ / m = 0.317 ± 0.06f.

Fig. 106 shows the parabolic velocity curves according to the American observers for calm weather, and
for an up- or down-stream wind of a force represented by 4.
 Fig. 106.

It is impossible at present to give a theoretical rule for the vertical velocity curve, but in very many
gaugings it has been found that a parabola with horizontal axis fits the observed results fairly well. The
mean velocity on any vertical in a stream varies from 0.85 to 0.92 of the surface velocity at that vertical,
and on the average if v0 is the surface and vm the mean velocity at a vertical vm = 6⁄7v0, a result useful
in float gauging. On any vertical there is a point at which the velocity is equal to the mean velocity, and
if this point were known it would be useful in gauging. Humphreys and Abbot in the Mississippi found
the mean velocity at 0.66 of the depth; G. H. L. Hagen and H. Heinemann at 0.56 to 0.58 of the depth.
The mean of observations by various observers gave the mean velocity at from 0.587 to 0.62 of the
depth, the average of all being almost exactly 0.6 of the depth. The mid-depth velocity is therefore
nearly equal to, but a little greater than, the mean velocity on a vertical. If vmd is the mid-depth velocity,
then on the average vm = 0.98vmd.

§ 105. Mean Velocity on a Vertical from Two Velocity Observations.—A. J. C. Cunningham, in gaugings
on the Ganges canal, found the following useful results. Let v0 be the surface, vm the mean, and vxd the
velocity at the depth xd; then

vm = 1⁄4 (v0 + 3v2/3d )

= 1⁄2 (v.211d + v.789d ).

§ 106. Ratio of Mean to Greatest Surface Velocity, for the whole Cross Section in Trapezoidal
Channels.—It is often very important to be able to deduce the mean velocity, and thence the discharge,
from observation of the greatest surface velocity. The simplest method of gauging small streams and
channels is to observe the greatest surface velocity by floats, and thence to deduce the mean velocity.
In general in streams of fairly regular section the mean velocity for the whole section varies from 0.7 to
0.85 of the greatest surface velocity. For channels not widely differing from those experimented on by
Bazin, the expression obtained by him for the ratio of surface to mean velocity may be relied on as at
least a good approximation to the truth. Let v0 be the greatest surface velocity, vm the mean velocity of
the stream. Then, according to Bazin,

vm = v0 − 25.4 √ (mi).

But

vm = c √ (mi),

where c is a coefficient, the values of which have been already given in the table in § 98. Hence
 vm = cv0 / (c + 25.4).

Values of Coefficient c/(c + 25.4) in the Formula vm = cv0/(c + 25.4).

Very Smooth Rough Very Rough Channels

Hydraulic
Smooth Channels. Channels. Channels. encumbered
Mean Depth
Channels. Ashlar or Rubble Canals in with
= m.
Cement. Brickwork. Masonry. Earth. Detritus.
0.25 .83 .79 .69 .51 .42
0.5 .84 .81 .74 .58 .50
0.75 .84 .82 .76 .63 .55
1.0 .85 .. .77 .65 .58
2.0 .. .83 .79 .71 .64
3.0 .. .. .80 .73 .67
4.0 .. .. .81 .75 .70
5.0 .. .. .. .76 .71
6.0 .. .84 .. .77 .72
7.0 .. .. .. .78 .73
8.0 .. .. .. .. ..
9.0 .. .. .82 .. .74
10.0 .. .. .. .. ..
15.0 .. .. .. .79 .75
20.0 .. .. .. .80 .76
30.0 .. .. .82 .. .77
40.0 .. .. .. .. ..
50.0 .. .. .. .. ..
∞ .. .. .. .. .79

§ 107. River Bends.—In rivers flowing in alluvial plains, the

windings which already exist tend to increase in curvature
by the scouring away of material from the outer bank and
the deposition of detritus along the inner bank. The
sinuosities sometimes increase till a loop is formed with only
a narrow strip of land between the two encroaching
branches of the river. Finally a “cut off” may occur, a
waterway being opened through the strip of land and the
loop left separated from the stream, forming a horseshoe
shaped lagoon or marsh. Professor James Thomson pointed
out (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1877, p. 356; Proc. Inst. of Mech. Eng.,
1879, p. 456) that the usual supposition is that the water
tending to go forwards in a straight line rushes against the Fig. 107.
outer bank and scours it, at the same time creating deposits
at the inner bank. That view is very far from a complete account of the matter, and Professor Thomson
gave a much more ingenious account of the action at the bend, which he completely confirmed by
experiment.
 When water moves round a circular curve under the
action of gravity only, it takes a motion like that in a free
vortex. Its velocity is greater parallel to the axis of the
stream at the inner than at the outer side of the bend.
Hence the scouring at the outer side and the deposit at
the inner side of the bend are not due to mere difference
Fig. 108. of velocity of flow in the general direction of the stream;
but, in virtue of the centrifugal force, the water passing
round the bend presses outwards, and the free surface in a radial cross section has a slope from the
inner side upwards to the outer side (fig. 108). For the greater part of the water flowing in curved
paths, this difference of pressure produces no tendency to transverse motion. But the water
immediately in contact with the rough bottom and sides of the channel is retarded, and its centrifugal
force is insufficient to balance the pressure due to the greater depth at the outside of the bend. It
therefore flows inwards towards the inner side of the bend, carrying with it detritus which is deposited
at the inner bank. Conjointly with this flow inwards along the bottom and sides, the general mass of
water must flow outwards to take its place. Fig. 107 shows the directions of flow as observed in a small
artificial stream, by means of light seeds and specks of aniline dye. The lines CC show the directions of
flow immediately in contact with the sides and bottom. The dotted line AB shows the direction of motion
of floating particles on the surface of the stream.

§ 108. Discharge of a River when flowing at different Depths.—When frequent observations must be
made on the flow of a river or canal, the depth of which varies at different times, it is very convenient
to have to observe the depth only. A formula can be established giving the flow in terms of the depth.
Let Q be the discharge in cubic feet per second; H the depth of the river in some straight and uniform
part. Then Q = aH + bH2, where the constants a and b must be found by preliminary gaugings in
different conditions of the river. M. C. Moquerey found for part of the upper Saône, Q = 64.7H + 8.2H2
in metric measures, or Q = 696H + 26.8H2 in English measures.

§ 109. Forms of Section of Channels.—The simplest form of section for channels is the semicircular or
nearly semicircular channel (fig. 109), a form now often adopted from the facility with which it can be
executed in concrete. It has the advantage that the rubbing surface is less in proportion to the area
than in any other form.

Fig. 109.

Wooden channels or flumes, of which there are examples on a large scale in America, are rectangular
in section, and the same form is adopted for wrought and cast-iron aqueducts. Channels built with
brickwork or masonry may be also rectangular, but they are often trapezoidal, and are always so if the
sides are pitched with masonry laid dry. In a trapezoidal channel, let b (fig. 110) be the bottom breadth,
b0 the top breadth, d the depth, and let the slope of the sides be n horizontal to 1 vertical. Then the
area of section is Ω = (b + nd) d = (b0 − nd) d, and the wetted perimeter χ = b + 2d √ (n2 + 1).

Fig. 110.

When a channel is simply excavated in earth it is always originally trapezoidal, though it becomes
more or less rounded in course of time. The slope of the sides then depends on the stability of the
earth, a slope of 2 to 1 being the one most commonly adopted.

Figs. 111, 112 show the form of canals excavated in earth, the former being the section of a
navigation canal and the latter the section of an irrigation canal.

§ 110. Channels of Circular Section.—The following short table facilitates calculations of the discharge
with different depths of water in the channel. Let r be the radius of the channel section; then for a
depth of water = κr, the hydraulic mean radius is μr and the area of section of the waterway νr2, where
κ, μ, and ν have the following values:—

Depth of water in
κ= .01 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .6
terms of radius
Hydraulic mean depth
μ= .00668 .0321 .0523 .0963 .1278 .1574 .1852 .2142 .242 .269 .293 .320 .34
in terms of radius
Waterway in terms of
ν= .00189 .0211 .0598 .1067 .1651 .228 .294 .370 .450 .532 .614 .709 .79
square of radius

Fig. 111.—Scale 20 ft. = 1 in.

 Fig. 112.—Scale 80 ft. = 1 in.

§ 111. Egg-Shaped Channels or Sewers.—In sewers for

discharging storm water and house drainage the volume of
flow is extremely variable; and there is a great liability for
deposits to be left when the flow is small, which are not
removed during the short periods when the flow is large.
The sewer in consequence becomes choked. To obtain
uniform scouring action, the velocity of flow should be
constant or nearly so; a complete uniformity of velocity
cannot be obtained with any form of section suitable for
sewers, but an approximation to uniform velocity is obtained
by making the sewers of oval section. Various forms of oval
have been suggested, the simplest being one in which the Fig. 113.
radius of the crown is double the radius of the invert, and
the greatest width is two-thirds the height. The section of such a sewer is shown in fig. 113, the
numbers marked on the figure being proportional numbers.

§ 112. Problems on Channels in which the Flow is Steady and at Uniform Velocity.—The general
equations given in §§ 96, 98 are

ζ = α(1 + β/m);
(1)

ζv2/2g = mi;
(2)

Q = Ωv.
(3)

Problem I.—Given the transverse section of stream and discharge, to find the slope. From the
dimensions of the section find Ω and m; from (1) find ζ, from (3) find v, and lastly from (2) find i.

Problem II.—Given the transverse section and slope, to find the discharge. Find v from (2), then Q
from (3).

Problem III.—Given the discharge and slope, and either the breadth, depth, or general form of the
section of the channel, to determine its remaining dimensions. This must generally be solved by
approximations. A breadth or depth or both are chosen, and the discharge calculated. If this is greater
than the given discharge, the dimensions are reduced and the discharge recalculated.

Since m lies generally between the limits m = d and m = 1⁄2d,

where d is the depth of the stream, and since, moreover, the
velocity varies as √ (m) so that an error in the value of m leads
only to a much less error in the value of the velocity calculated
from it, we may proceed thus. Assume a value for m, and Fig. 114.
calculate v from it. Let v1 be this first approximation to v. Then
Q/v1 is a first approximation to Ω, say Ω1. With this value of Ω design the section of the channel;
calculate a second value for m; calculate from it a second value of v, and from that a second value for
Ω. Repeat the process till the successive values of m approximately coincide.

§ 113. Problem IV. Most Economical Form of Channel for given Side Slopes.—Suppose the channel is
to be trapezoidal in section (fig. 114), and that the sides are to have a given slope. Let the longitudinal
slope of the stream be given, and also the mean velocity. An infinite number of channels could be found
satisfying the foregoing conditions. To render the problem determinate, let it be remembered that, since
for a given discharge Ω∞ √χ, other things being the same, the amount of excavation will be least for
that channel which has the least wetted perimeter. Let d be the depth and b the bottom width of the
channel, and let the sides slope n horizontal to 1 vertical (fig. 114), then

Ω = (b + nd) d;

χ = b + 2d √ (n2 + 1).

Both Ω and χ are to be minima. Differentiating, and equating to zero.

(db/dd + n) d + b + nd = 0,
db/dd + 2 √ (n2 + 1) = 0;

eliminating db/dd,

{n − 2√ (n2 + 1)} d + b + nd = 0;
b = 2 {√ (n2 + 1) − n} d.

But

Ω / χ = (b + nd) d / {b + 2d √ (n2 + 1)}.

Inserting the value of b,

m = Ω/χ = {2d √ (n2 + 1) − nd} / {4d √ (n2 + 1) − 2nd} = 1⁄2 d.

That is, with given side slopes, the section is least for a given discharge when the hydraulic mean
depth is half the actual depth.

A simple construction gives the form of the channel which fulfils this condition, for it can be shown
that when m = 1⁄2d the sides of the channel are tangential to a semicircle drawn on the water line.

Since

Ω / χ = 1⁄2 d,

therefore

Ω = 1⁄2 χd.
(1)

Let ABCD be the channel (fig. 115); from E the centre of AD drop perpendiculars EF, EG, EH on the
sides.
Let

AB = CD = a; BC = b; EF = EH = c; and EG = d.

Ω = area AEB + BEC + CED,

= ac + 1⁄2 bd.

χ = 2a + b.

Putting these values in (1),

ac + 1⁄2 bd = (a + 1⁄2 b) d; and hence c = d.

Fig. 115.

That is, EF, EG, EH are all equal, hence a semicircle struck
from E with radius equal to the depth of the stream will pass
through F and H and be tangential to the sides of the channel.

To draw the channel, describe a semicircle on a horizontal

Fig. 116.
line with radius = depth of channel. The bottom will be a
horizontal tangent of that semicircle, and the sides tangents
drawn at the required side slopes.

The above result may be obtained thus (fig. 116):—

χ = b + 2d / sin β.
(1)

Ω = d (b + d cot β);

Ω/d = b + d cot β;
(2)

Ω/d2 = b/d + cot β.

(3)

From (1) and (2),

χ = Ω / d − d cot β + 2d / sin β.

This will be a minimum for

dχ / dd = Ω / d2 + cot β − 2 / sin β = 0,

or
 Ω/d2 = 2 cosec. β − cot β.
(4)

or

d = √ {Ω sin β / (2 − cos β)}.

From (3) and (4),

b/d = 2 (1 − cos β) / sin β = 2 tan 1⁄2 β.

Proportions of Channels of Maximum Discharge for given Area and Side Slopes. Depth of channel = d;
Hydraulic mean depth = 1⁄2d; Area of section = Ω.

Top width =
Inclination Ratio of
Area of Bottom twice length
of Sides to Side
Section Ω. Width. of each Side
Horizon. Slopes.
Slope.
Semicircle .. .. 1.571d2 0 2d
Semi-hexagon 60° 0′ 3 :5 1.732d2 1.155d 2.310d
Semi-square 90° 0′ 0 :1 2d2 2d 2d
75° 58′ 1 :4 1.812d2 1.562d 2.062d
63° 26′ 1 :2 1.736d2 1.236d 2.236d
53° 8′ 3 :4 1.750d2 d 2.500d
45° 0′ 1 :1 1.828d2 0.828d 2.828d
38° 40′ 11⁄4 : 1 1.952d2 0.702d 3.202d
33° 42′ 11⁄2 : 1 2.106d2 0.606d 3.606d
29° 44′ 13⁄4 : 1 2.282d2 0.532d 4.032d
26° 34′ 2 :1 2.472d2 0.472d 4.472d
23° 58′ 21⁄4 : 1 2.674d2 0.424d 4.924d
21° 48′ 21⁄2 : 1 2.885d2 0.385d 5.385d
19° 58′ 23⁄4 : 1 3.104d2 0.354d 5.854d
18° 26′ 3 :1 3.325d2 0.325d 6.325d
Half the top width is the length of each side slope. The wetted
perimeter is the sum of the top and bottom widths.

§ 114. Form of Cross Section of Channel in which the Mean Velocity is Constant with Varying
Discharge.—In designing waste channels from canals, and in some other cases, it is desirable that the
mean velocity should be restricted within narrow limits with very different volumes of discharge. In
channels of trapezoidal form the velocity increases and diminishes with the discharge. Hence when the
discharge is large there is danger of erosion, and when it is small of silting or obstruction by weeds. A
theoretical form of section for which the mean velocity would be constant can be found, and, although
this is not very suitable for practical purposes, it can be more or less approximated to in actual
channels.
 Fig. 117.

Let fig. 117 represent the cross section of the channel. From the symmetry of the section, only half
the channel need be considered. Let obac be any section suitable for the minimum flow, and let it be
required to find the curve beg for the upper part of the channel so that the mean velocity shall be
constant. Take o as origin of coordinates, and let de, fg be two levels of the water above ob.

Let ob = b/2; de = y, fg = y + dy, od = x, of = x + dx; eg = ds.

The condition to be satisfied is that

v = c √ (mi)

should be constant, whether the water-level is at ob, de, or fg. Consequently

m = constant = k

for all three sections, and can be found from the section obac. Hence also

Increment of section y dx
= = k.
Increment of perimeter ds

y2 dx2 = k2 ds2 = k2 (dx2 + dy2) and dx = k dy / √ (y2 − k2).

Integrating,

x = k logε {y + √ (y2 − k2)} + constant;

and, since y = b/2 when x = 0,

x = k logε [{y + √ (y2 − k2)} / {1⁄2 b + √ (1⁄4 b2 − k2) }].

Assuming values for y, the values of x can be found and the curve drawn.

The figure has been drawn for a channel the minimum section of which is a half hexagon of 4 ft.
depth. Hence k = 2; b = 9.2; the rapid flattening of the side slopes is remarkable.

Steady Motion of Water in Open Channels of Varying Cross Section and Slope

§ 115. In every stream the discharge of which is constant, or may be regarded as constant for the
time considered, the velocity at different places depends on the slope of the bed. Except at certain
exceptional points the velocity will be greater as the slope of the bed is greater, and, as the velocity and
cross section of the stream vary inversely, the section of the stream will be least where the velocity and
slope are greatest. If in a stream of tolerably uniform slope an obstruction such as a weir is built, that
will cause an alteration of flow similar to that of an alteration of the slope of the bed for a greater or
less distance above the weir, and the originally uniform cross section of the stream will become a varied
one. In such cases it is often of much practical importance to determine the longitudinal section of the
stream.

The cases now considered will be those in which the changes of velocity and cross section are gradual
and not abrupt, and in which the only internal work which needs to be taken into account is that due to
the friction of the stream bed, as in cases of uniform motion. Further, the motion will be supposed to be
steady, the mean velocity at each given cross section remaining constant, though it varies from section
to section along the course of the stream.

Fig. 118.

Let fig. 118 represent a longitudinal section of the stream, A0A1 being the water surface, B0B1 the
stream bed. Let A0B0, A1B1 be cross sections normal to the direction of flow. Suppose the mass of water
A0B0A1B1 comes in a short time θ to C0D0C1D1, and let the work done on the mass be equated to its
change of kinetic energy during that period. Let l be the length A0A1 of the portion of the stream
considered, and z the fall, of surface level in that distance. Let Q be the discharge of the stream per
second.

Change of Kinetic Energy.—At the end of the time θ there are

as many particles possessing the same velocities in the space
C0D0A1B1 as at the beginning. The change of kinetic energy is
therefore the difference of the kinetic energies of A0B0C0D0 and
A 1 B 1 C1 D 1 .

Let fig. 119 represent the cross section A0B0, and let ω be a Fig. 119.

small element of its area at a point where the velocity is v. Let

Ω0 be the whole area of the cross section and u0 the mean velocity for the whole cross section. From
the definition of mean velocity we have

u0 = Σ ωv / Ω0.

Let v = u0 + w, where w is the difference between the velocity at the small element ω and the mean
velocity. For the whole cross section, Σωw = 0.

The mass of fluid passing through the element of section ω, in θ seconds, is (G/g) ωvθ, and its kinetic
energy is (G/2g) ωv3θ. For the whole section, the kinetic energy of the mass A0B0C0D0 passing in θ
seconds is
 (Gθ / 2g) Σωv3 = (Gθ/2g) Σω (u03 + 3u02w + 3u02 + w3),
= (Gθ / 2g) {u03Ω + Σωw2 (3u0 + w)}.

The factor 3u0 + w is equal to 2u0 + v, a quantity necessarily positive. Consequently Σωv3 > Ω0u03,
and consequently the kinetic energy of A0B0C0D0 is greater than

(Gθ / 2g) Ω0u03 or (Gθ) / 2g) Qu02,

which would be its value if all the particles passing the section had the same velocity u0. Let the kinetic
energy be taken at

α (Gθ / 2g) Ω0u03 = α (Gθ / 2g) Qu02,

where α is a corrective factor, the value of which was estimated by J. B. C. J. Bélanger at 1.1.6 Its
precise value is not of great importance.

In a similar way we should obtain for the kinetic energy of A1B1C1D1 the expression

α (Gθ / 2g) Ω1u13 = α (Gθ / 2g) Qu12,

where Ω1, u1 are the section and mean velocity at A1B1, and where a may be taken to have the same
value as before without any important error.

Hence the change of kinetic energy in the whole mass A0B0A1B1 in θ seconds is

α (Gθ / 2g) Q (u12 − u02).

 (1)

Motive Work of the Weight and Pressures.—Consider a small filament a0a1

which comes in θ seconds to c0c1. The work done by gravity during that
movement is the same as if the portion a0c0 were carried to a1c1. Let dQ θ be the
volume of a0c0 or a1c1, and y0, y1 the depths of a0, a1 from the surface of the
stream. Then the volume dQ θ or G dQ θ pounds falls through a vertical height z
+ y1 − y0, and the work done by gravity is

G dQ θ (z + y1 − y0).

Putting pa for atmospheric pressure, the whole pressure per unit of area at a0 is
Gy0 + pa, and that at a1 is −(Gy1 + pa). The work of these pressures is

G (y0 + pa/G − y1 − pa/G) dQ θ = G (y0 − y1) dQ θ.

Adding this to the work of gravity, the whole work is GzdQθ; or, for the whole
cross section,

GzQθ.
(2)

Work expended in Overcoming the Friction of the Stream Bed.—Let A′B′, A″B″
be two cross sections at distances s and s + ds from A0B0. Between these
sections the velocity may be treated as uniform, because by hypothesis the
changes of velocity from section to section are gradual. Hence, to this short
length of stream the equation for uniform motion is applicable. But in that case
the work in overcoming the friction of the stream bed between A′B′ and A″B″ is

GQθζ (u2 / 2g) (χ / Ω) ds,

where u, χ, Ω are the mean velocity, wetted perimeter, and section at A′B′. Hence
the whole work lost in friction from A0B0 to A1B1 will be

GQθ ∫ 01 ζ (u2 / 2g) (χ / Ω) ds.

(3)

Equating the work given in (2) and (3) to the change of kinetic energy given in
(1),

α (GQθ / 2g) (u12 − u02) = GQzθ − GQθ ∫ 01 ζ (u2 / 2g) (χ / Ω) ds;

 ∴ z = α (u12 − u02) / 2g + ∫ 01 ζ (u2 / 2g) (χ / Ω) ds.

Fig. 120.

§ 116. Fundamental Differential Equation of Steady Varied Motion.—Suppose

the equation just found to be applied to an indefinitely short length ds of the
stream, limited by the end sections ab, a1b1, taken for simplicity normal to the
stream bed (fig. 120). For that short length of stream the fall of surface level, or
difference of level of a and a1, may be written dz. Also, if we write u for u0, and u
+ du for u1, the term (u02 − u12)/2g becomes udu/g. Hence the equation
applicable to an indefinitely short length of the stream is

dz = u du/g + (χ/Ω) ζ (u2/2g) ds.

(1)

From this equation some general conclusions may be arrived at as to the form of
the longitudinal section of the stream, but, as the investigation is somewhat
complicated, it is convenient to simplify it by restricting the conditions of the
problem.

Modification of the Formula for the Restricted Case of a Stream flowing in a

Prismatic Stream Bed of Constant Slope.—Let i be the constant slope of the bed.
Draw ad parallel to the bed, and ac horizontal. Then dz is sensibly equal to a′c.
The depths of the stream, h and h + dh, are sensibly equal to ab and a′b′, and
therefore dh = a′d. Also cd is the fall of the bed in the distance ds, and is equal to
ids. Hence

dz = a′c = cd − a′d = i ds − dh.

 (2)

Since the motion is steady—

Q = Ωu = constant.

Differentiating,

Ω du + u dΩ = 0;

∴ du = −u dΩ/Ω.

Let x be the width of the stream, then dΩ = xdh very nearly. Inserting this value,

du = −(ux / Ω) dh.
(3)

Putting the values of du and dz found in (2) and (3) in equation (1),

i ds − dh = −(u2x / gΩ) dh + (χ / Ω) ζ (u2 / 2g) ds.

dh/ds = {i − (χ/Ω) ζ (u2/2g)} / {1 − (u2/g) (x/Ω)}.

(4)

Further Restriction to the Case of a Stream of Rectangular Section and of

Indefinite Width.—The equation might be discussed in the form just given, but it
becomes a little simpler if restricted in the way just stated. For, if the stream is
rectangular, χh = Ω, and if χ is large compared with h, Ω/χ = xh/x = h nearly.
Then equation (4) becomes

dh/ds = i (1 − ζu2 / 2gih) / (1 − u2/gh).

(5)

§ 117. General Indications as to the Form of Water Surface furnished by

Equation (5).—Let A0A1 (fig. 121) be the water surface, B0B1 the bed in a
longitudinal section of the stream, and ab any section at a distance s from B0, the
depth ab being h. Suppose B0B1, B0A0 taken as rectangular coordinate axes, then
dh/ds is the trigonometric tangent of the angle which the surface of the stream at
a makes with the axis B0B1. This tangent dh/ds will be positive, if the stream is
increasing in depth in the direction B0B1; negative, if the stream is diminishing in
depth from B0 towards B1. If dh/ds = 0, the surface of the stream is parallel to
the bed, as in cases of uniform motion. But from equation (4)
 dh/ds = 0, if i − (χ/Ω) ζ (u2/2g) = 0;

∴ ζ (u2/2g) = (Ω/χ) i = mi,

which is the well-known general equation for uniform motion, based on the same
assumptions as the equation for varied steady motion now being considered. The
case of uniform motion is therefore a limiting case between two different kinds of
varied motion.

Fig. 121.

Consider the possible changes of value of the fraction

(1 − ζu2 / 2gih) / (1 − u2 / gh).

As h tends towards the limit 0, and consequently u is large, the numerator tends
to the limit −∞. On the other hand if h = ∞, in which case u is small, the
numerator becomes equal to 1. For a value H of h given by the equation

1 − ζu2 / 2giH = 0,
H = ζu2 / 2gi,

we fall upon the case of uniform motion. The results just stated may be tabulated
thus:—

For h = 0, H, > H, ∞,

the numerator has the value −∞, 0, > 0, 1.

Next consider the denominator. If h becomes very small, in which case u must
be very large, the denominator tends to the limit −∞. As h becomes very large
and u consequently very small, the denominator tends to the limit 1. For h =
u2/g, or u = √ (gh), the denominator becomes zero. Hence, tabulating these
results as before:—

For h = 0, u2/g, > u2/g, ∞,

the denominator becomes −∞, 0, > 0, 1.

Fig. 122.

§ 118. Case 1.—Suppose h > u2/g, and also h > H, or the depth greater than
that corresponding to uniform motion. In this case dh/ds is positive, and the
stream increases in depth in the direction of flow. In fig. 122 let B0B1 be the bed,
C0C1 a line parallel to the bed and at a height above it equal to H. By hypothesis,
the surface A0A1 of the stream is above C0C1, and it has just been shown that the
depth of the stream increases from B0 towards B1. But going up stream h
approaches more and more nearly the value H, and therefore dh/ds approaches
the limit 0, or the surface of the stream is asymptotic to C0C1. Going down stream
h increases and u diminishes, the numerator and denominator of the fraction (1 −
ζu2/2gih) / (1 − u2/gh) both tend towards the limit 1, and dh/ds to the limit i.
That is, the surface of the stream tends to become asymptotic to a horizontal line
D0D1.

The form of water surface here discussed is produced when the flow of a
stream originally uniform is altered by the construction of a weir. The raising of
the water surface above the level C0C1 is termed the backwater due to the weir.
 § 119. Case 2.—Suppose h >
u2/g, and also h < H. Then
dh/ds is negative, and the
stream is diminishing in depth
in the direction of flow. In fig.
123 let B0B1 be the stream bed
as before; C0C1 a line drawn
Fig. 123.
parallel to B0B1 at a height
above it equal to H. By
hypothesis the surface A0A1 of
the stream is below C0C1, and
the depth has just been shown
to diminish from B0 towards B1.
Going up stream h approaches
the limit H, and dh/ds tends to
the limit zero. That is, up Fig. 124.
stream A0A1 is asymptotic to
C0C1. Going down stream h diminishes and u increases; the inequality h > u2/g
diminishes; the denominator of the fraction (1 − ζu2/2gih) / (1 − u2/gh) tends to
the limit zero, and consequently dh/ds tends to ∞. That is, down stream A0A1
tends to a direction perpendicular to the bed. Before, however, this limit was
reached the assumptions on which the general equation is based would cease to
be even approximately true, and the equation would cease to be applicable. The
filaments would have a relative motion, which would make the influence of
internal friction in the fluid too important to be neglected. A stream surface of this
form may be produced if there is an abrupt fall in the bed of the stream (fig.
124).

On the Ganges canal, as originally constructed, there were abrupt falls precisely
of this kind, and it appears that the lowering of the water surface and increase of
velocity which such falls occasion, for a distance of some miles up stream, was
not foreseen. The result was that, the velocity above the falls being greater than
was intended, the bed was scoured and considerable damage was done to the
works. “When the canal was first opened the water was allowed to pass freely
over the crests of the overfalls, which were laid on the level of the bed of the
earthen channel; erosion of bed and sides for some miles up rapidly followed, and
it soon became apparent that means must be adopted for raising the surface of
the stream at those points (that is, the crests of the falls). Planks were
accordingly fixed in the grooves above the bridge arches, or temporary weirs were
formed over which the water was allowed to fall; in some cases the surface of the
water was thus raised above its normal height, causing a backwater in the
channel above” (Crofton’s Report on the Ganges Canal, p. 14). Fig. 125
represents in an exaggerated form what probably occurred, the diagram being
intended to represent some miles’ length of the canal bed above the fall. AA
parallel to the canal bed is the level corresponding to uniform motion with the
intended velocity of the canal. In consequence of the presence of the ogee fall,
however, the water surface would take some such form as BB, corresponding to
Case 2 above, and the velocity would be greater than the intended velocity, nearly
in the inverse ratio of the actual to the intended depth. By constructing a weir on
the crest of the fall, as shown by dotted lines, a new water surface CC
corresponding to Case 1 would be produced, and by suitably choosing the height
of the weir this might be made to agree approximately with the intended level AA.

Fig. 125.

§ 120. Case 3.—Suppose a stream flowing uniformly with a depth h < u2/g. For
a stream in uniform motion ζu2/2g = mi, or if the stream is of indefinitely great
width, so that m = H, then ζu2/2g = iH, and H = ζu2/2gi. Consequently the
condition stated above involves that

ζu2 / 2gi < u2 / g, or that i > ζ/2.

If such a stream is interfered with by the construction of a weir which raises its
level, so that its depth at the weir becomes h1 > u2/g, then for a portion of the
stream the depth h will satisfy the conditions h < u2/g and h > H, which are not
the same as those assumed in the two previous cases. At some point of the
stream above the weir the depth h becomes equal to u2/g, and at that point
dh/ds becomes infinite, or the surface of the stream is normal to the bed. It is
obvious that at that point the influence of internal friction will be too great to be
neglected, and the general equation will cease to represent the true conditions of
the motion of the water. It is known that, in cases such as this, there occurs an
abrupt rise of the free surface of the stream, or a standing wave is formed, the
conditions of motion in which will be examined presently.

It appears that the condition necessary to give rise to a standing wave is that i
> ζ/2. Now ζ depends for different channels on the roughness of the channel and
its hydraulic mean depth. Bazin calculated the values of ζ for channels of different
degrees of roughness and different depths given in the following table, and the
corresponding minimum values of i for which the exceptional case of the
production of a standing wave may occur.

Slope below Standing Wave Formed.

which a Standing
Nature of Bed of Stream. Wave is
Slope in feet Least Depth
impossible in
per foot. in feet.
feet peer foot.
0.002 0.262
Very smooth cemented surface 0.00147 0.003 .098
0.004 .065
0.003 .394
Ashlar or brickwork 0.00186 0.004 .197
0.006 .098
0.004 1.181
Rubble masonry 0.00235 0.006 .525
0.010 .262
0.006 3.478
Earth 0.00275 0.010 1.542
0.015 .919
 Standing Waves

§ 121. The formation of a standing wave was first observed by Bidone. Into a
small rectangular masonry channel, having a slope of 0.023 ft. per foot, he
admitted water till it flowed uniformly with a depth of 0.2 ft. He then placed a
plank across the stream which raised the level just above the obstruction to 0.95
ft. He found that the stream above the obstruction was sensibly unaffected up to
a point 15 ft. from it. At that point the depth suddenly increased from 0.2 ft. to
0.56 ft. The velocity of the stream in the part unaffected by the obstruction was
5.54 ft. per second. Above the point where the abrupt change of depth occurred
u2 = 5.542 = 30.7, and gh = 32.2 × 0.2 = 6.44; hence u2 was > gh. Just below
the abrupt change of depth u = 5.54 × 0.2/0.56 = 1.97; u2 = 3.88; and gh =
32.2 × 0.56 = 18.03; hence at this point u2 < gh. Between these two points,
therefore, u2 = gh; and the condition for the production of a standing wave
occurred.

Fig. 126.

The change of level at a standing wave may be found thus. Let fig. 126
represent the longitudinal section of a stream and ab, cd cross sections normal to
the bed, which for the short distance considered may be assumed horizontal.
Suppose the mass of water abcd to come to a′b′c′d′ in a short time t; and let u0,
u1 be the velocities at ab and cd, Ω0, Ω1 the areas of the cross sections. The force
causing change of momentum in the mass abcd estimated horizontally is simply
the difference of the pressures on ab and cd. Putting h0, h1 for the depths of the
centres of gravity of ab and cd measured down from the free water surface, the
force is G (h0Ω0 − h1Ω1) pounds, and the impulse in t seconds is G (h0Ω0 − h1Ω1)
t second pounds. The horizontal change of momentum is the difference of the
momenta of cdc′d′ and aba′b′; that is,

(G/g) (Ω1u12 − Ω0u02) t.

Hence, equating impulse and change of momentum,

G (h0Ω0 − h1Ω1) t = (G/g) (Ω1u12 − Ω0u02) t;

∴ h0Ω0 − h1Ω1 = (Ω1u12 − Ω0u02) / g.

(1)

For simplicity let the section be rectangular, of breadth B and depths H0 and H1,
at the two cross sections considered; then h0 = 1⁄2H0, and h1 = 1⁄2H1. Hence

H02 − H12 = (2/g) (H1u12 − H0u02).

But, since Ω0u0 = Ω1u1, we have

u12 = u02H02 / H12,

H02 − H12 = (2u02/g) (H02/H1 − H0).

(2)

This equation is satisfied if H0 = H1, which corresponds to the case of uniform

motion. Dividing by H0 − H1, the equation becomes

(H1/H0) (H0 + H1) = 2u02 / g;

(3)

∴ H1 = √ (2u02H0 / g + 1⁄4 H02) − 1⁄2 H0.

(4)

In Bidone’s experiment u0 = 5.54, and H0 = 0.2. Hence H1 = 0.52, which agrees

very well with the observed height.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookluna.com