1

Learning Objectives:

• Determine the underlying causes of writing difficulty in order to effectively address and support
students' needs.
• Demonstrate the qualities of strong writing instruction and adapt strategies to support struggling
writers effectively.
• Apply appropriate types of writing strategies effectively in teaching to enhance student writing
skills.
• Comprehend effective techniques for teaching handwriting and spelling, including curriculum
considerations, weekly routines, and strategies for remediation.

I. INTRODUCTION

Writing is an important foundation skill for success in school. It is a complex form of

communication that involves organizing thoughts, structuring sentences properly, and using correct
grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Whether writing by hand or typing on digital devices, mastering this
skill is essential for every student. However, many students struggle with writing. They may lack knowledge
of the writing process or use ineffective strategies for organizing their ideas, planning their work, setting
goals, and self-monitoring their progress (Grigorenko, Mambrino & Preiss, 2012).

As a vital form of communication, writing should be used properly to convey ideas clearly and
effectively. Teachers in various subjects have observed that some students face significant challenges in
writing, which has led to the need for remedial instruction to support students in improving their writing
skills (Kaminsky, 1981).

II. PRE- TEST

1. Which area of difficulty in writing is when students attribute their struggles to internal,
uncontrollable factors like believing they aren’t smart enough?
A. Knowledge Difficulties
B. Skill Difficulties
C. Motivation Difficulties
D. Instruction Difficulties

2. Analyze the level of scaffolding provided in each approach. Which approach provides the greatest
amount of support while decreasing progressively as the students advance?

A. Modelled Writing
B. Shared Writing
C. Guided Writing
D. Independent Writing
 2

3. Which of the following is NOT a procedural support for writing?

A. Checklist for revision or editing
B. Standardized Tests
C. Conference with Teachers
D. Planning forms and charts

4. Which area of difficulty in writing involves challenges such as visual-motor integration weaknesses
and fine motor skill issues?
A. Knowledge Difficulties
B. Skill Difficulties
C. Motivation Difficulties
D. Instruction Difficulties

5. Consider the advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of approach. Which approach
seems to be beneficial in the development of the students’ independent writing skills but might be
difficult for some learners due to poor self-motivation?
A. Modelled Writing
B. Shared Writing
C. Guided Writing
D. Independent Writing

6. What is the importance of integrating writing instruction with reading and other area of instruction?
A. To reduce workload of teachers
B. To prepare students for standardized tests
C. To make writing enjoyable for students
D. To help students identify the connection between reading, writing, and other subjects

7. Which area of difficulty in writing occurs when students have trouble understanding the structures
required for different types of writing?
A. Knowledge Difficulties
B. Skill Difficulties
C. Motivation Difficulties
D. Instruction Difficulties

8. Procedural supports can help students overcome challenges in the writing process. Established
routine is essential in creating a positive and productive writing environment.
A. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
B. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
 3

9. The base word graph in the word Dysgraphia refers to:

A. The ability to speak a word
B. The ability of producing letter forms by hand
C. The ability to draw symbols
D. The ability to express one’s thoughts

10. Knowledge plays an important role in writing, as it helps students produce ideas, disorganized
thoughts, and present clear and vague information. However, students without writing difficulties
often face challenges in various areas of knowledge, which affect their writing abilities.
A. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
B. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.

11. Continuing professional development is essential for teachers who are already experienced in
writing instruction. Explicit instruction is only necessary for beginning writers.
A. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
B. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.

12. Motivation is a critical factor in successful writing. Students who excel with writing often face
challenges in setting goals, maintaining a positive mindset, and staying motivated to improve.
A. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
B. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.

13. Which of these is the most appropriate for presenting new writing skills or concepts to the students,
providing a clear model for them to follow?
A. Modelled Writing
B. Shared Writing
C. Interactive Writing
D. Guided Writing

14. The following are symptoms of Dysgraphia, EXCEPT:

A. Trouble forming letters shapes
B. Tight, awkward, or painful grip on a pencil
C. Reading a passage or sentences
D. Difficulty following a line or staying within margins
 4

15. Reflect on the role of the teacher in each approach. Which of these approaches has the teacher
playing a minimal support, offering support while the students write?
A. Modelled Writing
B. Shared Writing
C. Interactive Writing
D. Independent Writing

16. Individuals with this subtype of dysgraphia typically exhibit illegible and slow handwriting, poor
drawing and tracing skills, and slow finger-tapping.
A. Spatial Dysgraphia
B. Motor Disgraphia
C. Acquired Dysgraphia
D. Linguistic Dysgraphia

17. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

A. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
B. To identify which words students need to focus on
C. To assign grades for the week
D. To discourage students from studying

18. According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD), the following are
symptoms of dysgraphia, EXCEPT:
A. Trouble forming letters shapes
B. Tight, awkward, or painful grip on a pencil
C. Difficulty following a line or staying within margins
D. Difficulty in reading a textbook

19. Which of the following is NOT a source of spelling vocabulary for students?
A. Children's reading materials
B. Children's writing
C. Teacher-assigned spelling lists
D. Self-selected words

20. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

A. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
B. To identify which words students need to focus on
C. To assign grades for the week
D. To discourage students from studying
 5

III. SUBJECT MATTER

A. AREAS OF DIFFICULTY FOR STUDENTS

Knowledge plays an important role in writing, as it helps students produce ideas, organize thoughts,
and present clear and concise information. However, students with writing difficulties often face challenges
in various areas of knowledge, which affect their writing abilities:

Knowledge Difficulties
a) Less awareness of what constitutes good writing and how to produce it

Many students with writing difficulties lack a clear understanding of what makes writing effective.
They may not know the qualities of good writing, such as clarity, coherence, and proper structure, making
it harder for them to create well-written pieces.

b) Restricted knowledge about genre-specific text structures (e.g., setting or plot elements in a
narrative)

Students may struggle to understand the specific structures used in different types of writing. For
example, in a narrative, they might not grasp key elements like setting, characters, or plot, which makes it
difficult for them to organize their thoughts appropriately.

c) Poor declarative, procedural, and conditional strategy knowledge (e.g., knowing that one
should set goals for writing, how to set specific goals, and when it is most beneficial to alter
those goals)

These students often lack knowledge about writing strategies. Declarative knowledge refers to
knowing that certain strategies (like setting writing goals) are important; procedural knowledge is knowing
how to implement those strategies; and conditional knowledge involves understanding when and why to
apply them. Without these skills, students may fail to plan, organize, or revise their work effectively.

d) Limited vocabulary

A weak vocabulary can hinder a student's ability to express ideas clearly. When students lack a
variety of words to choose from, their writing may seem repetitive, basic, or unclear, which limits their
ability to communicate effectively.

e) Underdeveloped knowledge of word and sentence structure (i.e., phonology, morphology, and
syntax);

Students may struggle with understanding and using the rules of language, including how sounds
work together (phonology), how words are formed (morphology), and how sentences are structured
(syntax). This can lead to errors in grammar and sentence construction, making their writing difficult to
understand.

f) Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly organized topic knowledge;

 6

When students have incomplete or disorganized knowledge about a topic, their writing tends to
reflect this. They may present ideas in a confusing or jumbled way, which affects the overall quality and
flow of their writing.

g) Difficulty accessing existing topic knowledge;

Even when students have knowledge about a topic, they may struggle to recall or use it while
writing. This can result in vague or underdeveloped content, as they fail to tap into what they already know.

h) Insensitivity to audience needs and perspectives, and to the functions their writing is intended
to serve.

Students with writing difficulties may not consider who will be reading their work or why they are
writing it. They might fail to adjust their tone, style, or content to fit the audience, leading to
miscommunication or a lack of clarity in their writing.

Skill Difficulties

Writing requires a range of skills that go beyond just knowing what to write. These skills involve
technical aspects like organizing thoughts, grammar, spelling, and even self-monitoring during the writing
process. Here are the common difficulties students face in this area:

a. Often do not plan before or during writing;

Many students with writing difficulties skip the planning stage, which is crucial for organizing
thoughts and structuring their writing. Without a clear plan, their ideas can come across as unorganized or
incomplete, making it harder to write effectively.

b. Exhibit poor text transcription (e.g., spelling, handwriting, and punctuation);

Text transcription refers to the physical process of writing, including spelling, handwriting, and
punctuation. Students often struggle with these basic skills, resulting in messy handwriting, frequent
spelling mistakes, and incorrect punctuation, all of which can distract from the clarity of their message.

c. Focus revision efforts (if they revise at all) on superficial aspects of writing (e.g., handwriting,
spelling, and grammar);

If students revise their work, they tend to focus only on surface-level issues like correcting spelling
or fixing handwriting, rather than improving the overall structure, content, or clarity of their writing. This
means they may miss opportunities to make more meaningful improvements in their ideas or organization.

d. Do not analyze or reflect on writing;

Good writing often involves stepping back and reflecting on what has been written—whether it
makes sense, flows well, and conveys the intended message. Students with writing difficulties often don’t
take the time to critically evaluate their work, which can result in disjointed or unclear writing.

e. Have limited ability to self-regulate thoughts, feelings, and actions throughout the writing
process;
 7

Self-regulation is the ability to manage one’s thoughts, emotions, and actions during writing.
Students may struggle to stay focused or become easily frustrated, which can prevent them from completing
tasks or improving their writing. They might also find it hard to stick to goals, manage their time, or keep
track of their progress.

f. Show poor attention and concentration

Maintaining focus is critical during the writing process. Students with writing problems often have
difficulty staying attentive, which can lead to errors, incomplete thoughts, or an overall lack of coherence
in their work.

g. Have visual motor integration weaknesses and fine motor difficulties.

Writing also involves physical coordination. However, problems such as visual-motor integration
weaknesses and fine motor difficulties affect a student's ability to write effectively. Visual-motor integration
is the ability to coordinate what the eyes see with physical actions, such as forming letters and organizing
text on a page. When students struggle in this area, their handwriting may become uneven, poorly spaced,
or hard to read. Fine motor difficulties, on the other hand, involve challenges with controlling the small
muscles in the hands and fingers needed for precise movements like gripping a pencil or typing. These
combined challenges can make writing tasks slow, frustrating, and physically difficult, often leading to
messy or illegible work, which can hinder a student's ability to communicate effectively through writing.

Motivation Difficulties

Motivation is a critical factor in successful writing. Students who struggle with writing often face
challenges in setting goals, maintaining a positive mindset, and staying motivated to improve. These
difficulties can create a cycle of frustration and avoidance. Here are the key motivation issues they
commonly experience:

a. Often do not develop writing goals and subgoals or flexibly alter them to meet audience,
task, and personal demands

Students with writing problems tend to skip setting clear goals for their writing. Writing goals, such
as outlining what they want to achieve or focusing on the needs of their audience, help provide direction.
When students fail to set these, they often lack a sense of purpose and struggle to adapt their writing based
on the situation, leading to unfocused or irrelevant content.

b. Fail to balance performance goals, which relate to documenting performance and

achieving success, and mastery goals, which relate to acquiring competence

Performance goals are focused on demonstrating success or avoiding failure (e.g., getting good
grades), while mastery goals are about improving one's skills and competence. Students with writing
difficulties often prioritize performance over mastery, making them more anxious about external validation
than internal growth. As a result, they may avoid challenges that could help them improve because they
fear failure.
 8

c. Exhibit maladaptive attributions by attributing academic success to external and

uncontrollable factors such as task ease or teacher assistance, but academic failure to internal yet
uncontrollable factors such as limited aptitude

When students believe that their academic success is due to factors they can't control, like how easy
a task is or how much help they receive from teachers, they develop maladaptive attributions. Similarly,
when they experience failure, they often blame it on internal but uncontrollable factors, such as thinking
they're not smart enough. This mindset prevents them from seeing their own efforts and strategies as the
key to improvement.

d. Have negative self-efficacy (competency) beliefs

Self-efficacy refers to a student's belief in their own ability to succeed in a specific task. Students
with writing difficulties often have low self-efficacy, meaning they doubt their ability to write well. This
lack of confidence leads to reluctance in engaging with writing tasks and a belief that no matter how hard
they try; they will not succeed.

e. Lack persistence

Writing can be a demanding process that requires time, effort, and perseverance. However, students
who struggle with writing often give up easily when they encounter difficulties. They may lack the
persistence needed to work through challenges, revise their work, or take the time to improve their skills.

f. Feel helpless and poorly motivated due to repeated failure

Repeated failure in writing can create a sense of helplessness, where students feel that no matter
what they do, they cannot improve. This feeling of helplessness leads to a lack of motivation, as students
believe their efforts will not lead to success. Over time, this can result in avoidance of writing tasks
altogether, reinforcing the cycle of failure and low motivation.

DYSGRAPHIA (WRITING DISABILITY)

What is dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is a Greek word. The base word graph refers both to the hand’s function in writing
and to the letters formed by the hand. The prefix dys indicates that there is impairment. Graph refers to
producing letter forms by hand. The suffix ia refers to having a condition. Thus, dysgraphia is the condition
of impaired letter writing by hand, that is, disabled handwriting. Impaired handwriting can interfere with
learning to spell words in writing and speed of writing text. Children with dysgraphia may have only
impaired handwriting, only impaired spelling (without reading problems), or both impaired handwriting
and impaired spelling.

Dysgraphia is a neurological condition in which someone has difficulty turning their thoughts into
written language for their age and ability to think, despite exposure to adequate instruction and education.
Dysgraphia can present with many different symptoms at different ages. It’s considered a learning
difference. Dysgraphia makes it difficult for a person to form letters in writing. It’s a neurological disorder
 9

that can affect children or adults. People with dysgraphia may also use the wrong word for what they’re
trying to communicate.

What Causes Dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is commonly thought of in the following two ways:

Acquired dysgraphia is associated with brain injury, disease, or degenerative conditions that cause
the individual (typically as an adult) to lose previously acquired skills in writing.

Developmental dysgraphia refers to difficulties in acquiring writing skills. This type of

dysgraphia is most commonly considered in childhood. The causes for developmental dysgraphia are
unknown, but researchers have identified several subtypes that correspond to certain neurological
mechanisms:

• Motor dysgraphia: Lack of fine-motor coordination and visual perception have long been tied to
dysgraphia and may explain difficulties with producing written text. Individuals with motor
dysgraphia typically exhibit illegible and slow handwriting, poor drawing and tracing skills, and
slow finger-tapping (a common measure of fine motor skills).
• Spatial dysgraphia is likely related to problems of spatial perception, which affects letter spacing
and drawing ability. Individuals with spatial dysgraphia struggle with handwriting and drawing,
however spelling and finger-tapping speed are typically normal.
• Linguistic dysgraphia impacts the language processing skills required in the writing process. It
most strongly affects spontaneously written text (which hasn’t been traced or copied), which is
often illegible. Drawing, copying, and oral spelling are not affected by linguistic dysgraphia.

How is dysgraphia diagnosed?

Diagnosing dysgraphia often requires a team of experts, including a physician and a licensed
psychologist or other mental health professional trained in working with people who have learning
disabilities. An occupational therapist, school psychologist, or a special education teacher may also help
make the diagnosis.

For children, part of the diagnostic process may include an IQ test and an assessment of their
academic work. Specific school assignments may also be examined.

For adults, examples of written work or written tests administered by a doctor may be evaluated.
You will be observed as you write to look for fine motor skills problems. You may be asked to copy words
from one source to another to help understand if there are language-processing problems.

Writing is a complex process that involves many skills and brain functions, including:

• Fine motor skills.

• Spatial perception (ability to perceive the space around you).
• Working memory (ability to hold and manipulate information in your mind).
• Orthographic coding (ability to form, store and recall letters, numbers and symbols).
• Conceptualization.
• Organization.
 10

Because of this, dysgraphia is somewhat of a catch-all term to diagnose issues with writing and can
be difficult to diagnose.

Dysgraphia generally appears when children are first learning to write. This is called developmental
dysgraphia. People can also develop dysgraphia suddenly after some type of head or brain trauma. This is
called acquired dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is considered a “specific learning disorder” — more specifically, a “specific learning

disorder in written expression.”

Dysgraphia Symptoms

Dysgraphia is typically identified as a child learns to write. However a disorder of written

expression may remain unrecognized through the early school years as a child’s writing ability continues
to develop; dysgraphia may remain undiagnosed until adulthood.

According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD), symptoms of dysgraphia
include:

• Trouble forming letters shapes

• Tight, awkward, or painful grip on a pencil
• Difficulty following a line or staying within margins
• Trouble with sentence structure or following rules of grammar when writing, but not when speaking
• Difficulty organizing or articulating thoughts on paper
• Pronounced difference between spoken and written understanding of a topic

Dysgraphia symptoms typically change over time. Children with dysgraphia generally have trouble
with the mechanics of writing and exhibit other fine-motor impairments, while dysgraphia in adolescents
and adults manifests as difficulties with grammar, syntax, comprehension, and generally putting thoughts
on paper.

Specific ways dysgraphia can present include:

• Difficulties writing in a straight line.

• Difficulties with holding and controlling a writing tool.
• Writing letters in reverse.
• Having trouble recalling how letters are formed.
• Having trouble knowing when to use lower or upper case letters.
• Struggling to form written sentences with correct grammar and punctuation.
• Omitting words from sentences.
• Incorrectly ordering words in sentences.
• Using verbs and pronouns incorrectly.

On the cognitive side, children with dysgraphia may struggle with:

• Difficulties with writing mechanics, like spelling, grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure
 11

• Trouble organizing their writing — they might have great ideas, but have a hard time getting them
down onto paper in a coherent, structured way.

Having one of these signs doesn’t mean that a person has dysgraphia, but if your child is having
trouble learning the basic skills for writing that are appropriate for their age, they should be tested to see if
they need specific help.

What kinds of instructional activities improve the handwriting of children with dysgraphia?

Initially, children with impaired handwriting benefit from activities that support learning to form
letters:

• playing with clay to strengthen hand muscles;

• keeping lines within mazes to develop motor control;
• connecting dots or dashes to create complete letter forms;
• tracing letters with index finger or eraser end of pencil;
• imitating the teacher modeling sequential strokes in letter formation; and
• copying letters from models.

Subsequently, once children learn to form legible letters, they benefit from instruction that helps
them develop automatic letter writing, using the following steps to practice each of the 26 letters of the
alphabet in a different order daily:

• studying numbered arrow cues that provide a consistent plan for letter formation
• writing the letter from memory after interval that increases in duration over the handwriting lesson
• writing letters from dictation (spoken name to letter form).

What treatments are available?

Some kids with dysgraphia struggle with the physical act of writing. Occupational therapy can often
help with this. Occupational therapy may be helpful in improving handwriting skills. Therapists can work
to improve the hand strength and fine motor coordination needed to type and write by hand. They might
also help kids learn the correct arm position and body posture for writing. Therapeutic activities may
include:

• holding a pencil or pen in a new way to make writing easier

• working with modeling clay
• tracing letters in shaving cream on a desk
• drawing lines within mazes
• doing connect-the-dots puzzles
• There are also several writing programs that can help children and adults form letters and sentences
neatly on paper.

Ways to help with dysgraphia at home

 12

There are many ways you can help your child build writing skills at home. Try out pencil grips and
other tools that may make writing easier. Download tools to help with handwriting and graphic organizers
to help with writing assignments.

B. QUALITIES OF STRONG WRITING INSTRUCTION

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write. Reading is an important component of literacy, but
literacy encompasses more than only the ability to read, recognize new vocabulary terms, and utilize spoken
language effectively. Literacy also means being able to express yourself in writing. This includes forming
ideas clearly, using the right grammar, and knowing how to structure sentences and paragraphs.

Writing is an integral part of learning in all disciplines requiring students to write or compose a
diverse range of texts that meet the literacy demands specific to the various curriculum or discipline areas.

Learning to write is a complex process encompassing cognitive, physical, social and cultural
dimensions (Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017).

Learning to write well means developing skills in all these areas—using your brain to think and
organize ideas (cognitive), controlling your body to physically write (physical), understanding and
considering the people who will read your work (social), and expressing ideas that are shaped by your
background and experiences (cultural).

Learning how to write is a complex process. This is the very reason why there is such a thing as
writing instruction.

Writing Instruction

➢ the process through which students are taught how to write.

➢ refers to the instruction that includes all components of the writing process, involving planning,
drafting, sharing, evaluating, revising, editing, and publishing.

According to Graham and Harris in 2002, the quality of instruction students receive is a major
determinant of their writing achievement. The quality of instruction varies dramatically (cf. Bridge,
Compton-Hall, & Cantrell, 1997; Christenson, Thurlow, Ysseldyke, & McVicar, 1989; Palinscar & Klenk,
1992; Westby & Costlow, 1991).

If the instruction is effective, students are more likely to improve their writing skills and achieve
better results. However, not all writing instruction is the same. The quality of instruction varies
dramatically, meaning that some teachers might be very good at teaching writing, while others may
struggle to provide effective guidance.

This difference in the quality of instruction can have a huge impact on students’ writing success. If
students receive clear, structured, and helpful instruction, they’re more likely to develop strong writing
skills. But if the instruction is unclear or not focused on helping students improve, their writing skills might
not develop as well.
 13

In order for teachers to support the development of all students’ writing abilities, certain qualities
of the writing classroom must be evident. There are attributes and qualities of a strong writing instruction
that constitute the foundation of any good writing program.

QUALITIES OR ATTRIBUTES OF A STRONG WRITING INSTRUCTION

1. Established Routine

an established routine that permits each student to become comfortable with the writing process
and move through the process over a sustained period of time at his/her own rate.

2. Authenticity

a focus on authentic writing tasks and meaningful writing experiences for personal and collective
expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and social change

3. Common Language

a common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing quality (e.g., traits)

4. Explicit Instruction

explicit instruction designed to help students master craft elements, writing skills, and process
strategies

5. Procedural Supports

procedural supports such as conferences, planning forms and charts, checklists for revision/editing,
and computer tools for removing transcription barriers

6. Integration

integration of writing instruction with reading instruction and content area instruction

7. Trained Professionals and Experts

a cadre of trained volunteers to respond to, encourage, coach, and celebrate children’s writing,
which helps classroom teachers give more feedback and potentially individualize their instruction

resident writers and guest authors who share their expertise, struggles, and successes so that
children and teachers have positive role models and develop a broader sense of writing as craft

8. Continuing Professional Development

opportunities for teachers to upgrade and expand their own conceptions of writing, the writing
process, and how children learn to write, primarily through professional development activities, but also
through being an active member of a writing community (e.g., National Writing Project)

All of these qualities must be present to develop a thorough writing instruction for students. If
students are expected to become competent writers, all instructors who demand writing performance in
 14

their classrooms must approach writing instruction in same ways, and this approach must be continued
across the grades to support students as they progressively become successful writers.

EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION IN WRITING

Writing is a powerful tool for students to use to express their thoughts, feelings and judgments about what
they have read, seen or experienced. Carefully planned is essential to provide meaningful frameworks
where students can cultivate the skills and strategies necessary to convey ideas and information
effectively in writing.

There are five key instructional approaches that can be utilized in classroom-based practices, these are:
modelled writing; shared writing; interactive writing; guided writing; and independent writing. These
approaches facilitate the arrangement of introducing and supporting student learning by the teachers in a
step-by-step manner and gradual level. These writing strategies present the students with opportunities for
linking their background knowledge, other texts and the world that can provide for development of oral
language and effective written language with the student actively engaging with textual materials.

THINK-ALOUD STRATEGY

A think-aloud is a "metacognitive technique or strategy in which a teacher verbalizes thoughts aloud

while reading a selection orally, thus modeling the process of comprehension" (Harris & Hodges, 1995).
Teachers use this technique as an instructional practice to help students verbalize their thoughts they use
during reading, and thus bring that thinking into the open so that they can replicate it more effectively in
the future (Oster, 2001).

As an instructional practice, think-aloud differ from prompting, modeling, or giving directions.

Think-aloud enable teachers to demonstrate for their students how to select an appropriate comprehension
process at a specific point in a particular text. Highly effective think-aloud also describe why a specific
thought process would be effective in overcoming that confusion or reading difficulty. Thus, performing
effective think-aloud has proven to be a successful practice by which teachers can explain how expert
readers elicit comprehension processes separately and collectively (Block, 2004).

This strategy can make our approaches in writing more effective with the utilization of both
thinking, verbalizing and demonstrating the procedures of selecting the appropriate approach at a specific
task, fostering students’ potential of being more conscious of their thought processes and eventually make
them do things independently. Thus, having structured instruction and think-aloud strategy can highly
contribute in the process of developing the writing skills of the students.

FIVE KEY INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES IN EFFECTIVE WRITING PROGRAM

➢ Modelled Writing
 15

• In modelled writing, the teacher demonstrates a specific aspect of writing to the whole class
such as a new writing skill, text form, genre, or format.
• The teacher is the scribe and provides full support by thinking aloud and modelling what a
proficient writer does. Thus, demonstration is part of the process of putting thoughts and
feelings into written form, and finished products should be displayed at eye level to allow
students to read and reread the text.
• Students will develop short messages with the use of pictures, symbols, letters, phonetic
and meaningful words which are likely to be learnt at this stage. While, the teacher
monitors students’ performance while listening to the model text, comprehending the
verbalized content and differentiating between the purpose and use of the text.

➢ Shared Writing
• Shared writing allows students and teachers to work together on a piece of writing,
collaborating to create a text. The writing that is produced should be easily available to
students so they may read it over and over and use it as a model for their own writing.
• In this level of approach, students will be able to write what they think, feel, and observe
for definite purposes and also write complex sentences using adjectives and adverbs. This
makes it the teacher’s responsibility to monitor and assess students’ mastery of ideas and
thoughts, their learning progression, and their capacity to express themselves.

➢ Interactive Writing
• Interactive writing is an instructional approach in which the students and teacher share the
task of scribing the message.
• This will enable the students to write for particular purposes with focus on the thoughts,
feelings and experiences. They will use punctuations, such as period and will start
correcting work under the supervision of the teacher. In addition, students will also practice
in forming proper sentences, mastering the use of punctuations, as well as spelling of words
through charts or lists of words. In this case, the teacher will assess how every student
comprehended the concept of word, sentence, punctuation and meaning in writing. They
will monitor the students’ writing progress and recognize their ability to write
independently.
➢ Guided Writing
• Guided writing is a strategy that gives students the opportunity to review a recently taught
writing skill in a small-group setting and then to apply the skill through independent
writing.
• Group members are selected during observation and analysis of students' writing, the
teacher identifies a number of students who are at a similar instructional level for a
particular skill.
• Students will organize ideas in a logical sequence and the teacher will look at the areas for
further review through observation of students during the group activity and through the
writing that the students produce.
 16

➢ Independent Writing
• Independent writing gives students opportunities to do their own writing using both self-
selected and assigned topics and forms. Independent writing is used to give students the
opportunity to:

➜ understand and appreciate the importance of writing;

➜ apply their knowledge and skills to write independently;

➜ make independent choices about their writing

➜ become confident about expressing their personal voice and ideas in writing;

➜ develop skills related to each stage of the writing process.

• The students will do their writing exercise individually, they will be able to put down what they
feel, observations and their experiences. They will learn how to write different forms of sentences
as well as in different forms of writing. Take note that in this level of approach, students can still
have a little guide from their teacher through feedback and revision.

C. ADAPTATIONS FOR STRUGGLING WRITERS

1. Accommodations in the Learning Environment

a. Increase instructional time for writing.
b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for students to work.
c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools.
d. Let students identify and select meaningful reinforcements for achieving writing goals
(e.g., a reinforcement menu).
e. Consult with an occupational therapist to identify specialized adaptations (e.g., chair and
desk height).

2. Accommodations in Instructional Materials

a. Simplify language of writing prompts.
b. Highlight (e.g., color code) key words and phrases.
c. Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic organizers and procedural checklists.
d. Post strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists in classroom and give students personal
copies.
e. Develop individualized spelling lists.
f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and frequently used spelling
vocabulary.
g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’ desks.
h. Provide pencil grips for students.
i. Provide raised- or colored-lined paper.
 17

j. Provide students with personal copies of alphabet strips.

3. Accommodations in Teaching Strategies

a. Devote more instructional time to writing mechanics.

b. Provide physical assistance during handwriting practice.

c. Re-teach writing skills and strategies.

d. Expect and support mastery learning of skills and strategies (e.g., memorization of
strategy steps).

e. Use cross-age peer tutors to reinforce skills and strategies.

f. Assign homework designed to reinforce writing instruction.

g. Help students set specific and challenging yet attainable goals for the writing process
(e.g., completing a planning sheet before beginning to draft) and written products (e.g., a
quantity goal of including 10 descriptive words in a story, which is perhaps linked to a
quality goal of improving word choice by two points on an analytic quality scale).

h. Help students develop self-instructions (e.g., “I can handle this if I go slow.”) and self-
questions (e.g., “Am I following my plan?”) that focus on positive attributions for success
and task progress.

i. Teach students to evaluate and adjust their writing behaviors and writing strategy use to
improve their writing productivity and performance.

j. Promote maintenance and generalization of writing strategies by doing the following:

➢ Modeling and discussing how strategies may be used in multiple contexts;

➢ Relating writing performance to strategy use;

➢ Having students teach others how to use strategies;

➢ Having students keep a strategy notebook which they can consult at any time;

➢ Ensuring all staff and caregivers are familiar with and prompt the use of the
strategies; and

➢ Reviewing strategies often.

4. Modifications to Task Demands

a. Increase amount of time allotted for completing written assignments.

 18

b. Decrease the length and/or complexity of written assignments.

c. Have students complete text frames (i.e., partially finished texts).

d. Reduce or eliminate copying demands (e.g., teach students abbreviations for note taking,
supply worksheets with math problems from textbook).

e. Allow students to use temporary/invented spelling.

f. Pre-teach spelling vocabulary for assignments.

g. Evaluate spelling using correct letter sequences (e.g., hopping has 8 possible correct letter
sequences) rather than number of words spelled correctly to measure and reward incremental
progress attributable to partial correct spelling.

h. Permit students to dictate written work to a scribe.

i. If students have adequately developed keyboarding skills, permit them to write papers with a
word processor.

j. Permit students to use outlining and semantic mapping software to facilitate planning.

k. Permit students to use voice recognition technology to facilitate text transcription.

l. Permit students to use integrated spell checker and/or word prediction software to facilitate
correct spelling.

m. Permit students to use speech synthesis technology to facilitate revising and editing.

n. Selectively weight grading for content, organization, style, and conventions.

o. Grade assignments based on the amount of improvement rather than absolute performance.

p. Assign letter grades for body of work collected over time (i.e., portfolio assessment) rather
than for each paper.

q. Provide feedback on content, organization, style, and conventions for some rather than all
assignments (which may reduce students’ anxiety about writing).

r. Provide feedback on targeted aspects of writing rather than all aspects to avoid overwhelming
students.

5. Modifications to Learning Tasks

a. Permit students to dramatize or orally present a written assignment, either in lieu of writing or
in preparation for writing.
 19

b. Assign students suitable roles (e.g., brainstorm manager) for the creation of a group-
generated paper

D. TEACHING HANDWRITING

TEACHING HANDWRITING

Most adults would, at some point during a working day, be interacting with a computer or other
digital device to word-process, work with program applications designed for specific task-related outcomes
or correspond with others. Computers and other digital devices are also commonplace in many educational
settings, from preschool through to tertiary settings.

However, even with the fast-upcoming technology of all-digitally facilitated communication,

careful standing on the teeter-totter that should always be kept between technological advancement and
written language is necessary (Mackenzie & Spokes, 2024). In the primary and secondary school years,
efficient (quick, automatic, and legible) handwriting has been related to the achievements of pupils as well
as literacy abilities, especially word count, writing samples' length and quality (Doug, 2019; Limpo et al.,
2020).

Literacy in the twenty-first century requires that members write or complete both hand-written and
digital texts such as governmental and other agency forms, take standardized tests, take meaningful notes,
keep a personal diary, give a signature, voluntarily participate in leisure activities including word puzzles
and use text messaging.

The development of an automatic personal handwritten script is one contributory factor to writing
success, therefore, handwriting is a multi-domain physical skill that requires the integration of perceptual-
motor skills, and the kinesthetic process of writing is associated with writing achievement (Case-Smith,
Holland & Bishop, 2011; Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017; Graham, Harris & Fink, 2000).

Additionally, the development of automated keyboarding skills can contribute to writing success,
given the increasing demands for students to compose digitally. If handwriting or keyboarding is going to
free up the cognitive resources needed for recording, then the skills need to become automated. Cahill 2009;
Poole and Preciado 2016. Consequently, teachers must consider not just what their students write, but how
they record it.

Curriculum Considerations

Even in the world of computers and smartphones, handwriting is a basic necessary skill on its own
merits. Handwriting is also a learning tool that enhances overall academic achievement. Teaching
handwriting can be difficult but also very rewarding; therefore, we have included a comprehensive list of
helpful advice for all stages of writing instruction. Here are the four main aspects of handwriting instruction:
pencil grasp, formation, legibility, and pacing.
 20

A. Pencil Grasp: When we are going to teach students how to write, we should teach them first the
proper way of pencil grasp. The correct way on how to grasp a pencil is to make sure that the index
finger and thumb hold the pencil against the middle finger that will have a result of comfortable
and efficient handwriting, while incorrect grasp can lead to poor letter formation and fatigue.

We can’t avoid that there are some students that will have a hard time on how to practice the proper
pencil grasp. There are certain ways for this kind of situation by wrapping a rubber band around the ring
finger and pinkie, but not too tight, to fold them against the hand. We can also teach the "pinch and flip"
method, in which the student positions the pencil with the writing end facing her, pinches it between her
thumb and index finger, and flips it into the proper position.

B. Formation: This describes how a student forms letters. Straight lines are easier for youngsters to
write than curved ones, therefore teaching students to write capital letters first before going on to
lowercase characters is developmentally appropriate. This describes how a student creates a letter.
Straight lines are easier for children to write than curricular characters are developmentally
appropriate ones; therefore, teaching students to write capital letters first before going on to
lowercase.

It is necessary to combine handwriting teaching with phonics instruction; while learning to write
the letters, children must also learn and practice at the same time the sounds those letters make. Handwriting
and dictation activities form a part of every multimodal phonics training program: requiring kids
continuously to practice creating letters and connecting them to the sounds helps in better imprinting
phonics principles in the brain. Explicit instruction is particularly necessary in the case of students who are
having trouble forming letters. Students must be taught to begin their letters at the top of where the letter
should sit-most lowercase letters sit in the middle-and to use as many continuous strokes as possible. Some
letters will require a student to take his or her pencil from the page; students should be shown when to do
this. This is particularly useful when used on lined paper, in conjunction with a range of visual aids: arrow
cues for stroke direction, dots for starting points, dotted letters for tracing, etc. Children also benefit from
"skywriting" letters - that is, tracing letters in the air with an index finger while holding their arm straight
out.

The letters b, d, p, and q are commonly reversed by young students. Teaching students how to
properly write these letters can alleviate confusion since they each have a different starting point; for
example, the letter b is started at the top, whereas the letter d is begun in the middle. Once the student has
internalized the motor patterns of these letters, then recognition will be more automatic.

C. Legibility: One of the major factors affecting legibility is the spacing between words. It is useful
to encourage students to leave a "finger space" between words-right-handed students can place an
index finger on the line after one word, before writing the next. This trick does not work for left-
handed students, who will find that using a narrow tongue depressor serves nicely as a spacing tool.

D. Pacing: If students have an appropriate pencil grasp and are correctly forming their letters, this will
often correct itself after pacing. Another issue associated with pacing to consider is the press:
Students should not be pressing the pencil down on their paper too hard when writing, as this causes
writing fatigue and a very decreased rate of letter production. But if they press too lightly, it can be
 21

indicative of weak muscles or inappropriate pencil grasp. Encourage students to practice writing in
a variety of materials that will help them modulate how hard they press markers, short pencils,
crayons, erasable markers on whiteboards.

Weekly Routines in Teaching Handwriting

• About 60–75 minutes per week are dedicated to the teaching of handwriting in the primary grades.
• Students learn to compare letters for the purposes of finding the patterns and outlining their
similarities and differences.
• Students are given numerous opportunities to practice target letters through tracing a model of the
letter—a dashed or faded model—copying the letter, and then writing the letter from memory.
• Students' handwriting is observed and immediately reinforced for correct letter formation, spacing,
alignment, size, slant, and line quality.
• Ask students to self-assess their handwriting and to set a goal each day to improve specific aspects
of their handwriting.
• Encourage students to correct poorly formed letters, rewrite illegible work.

E. TEACHING SPELLING

TEACHING SPELLING

Teaching spelling is the process of helping students learn to spell words correctly. It involves
guiding students to understand the relationship between sounds and letters, recognize spelling patterns, and
apply these concepts to accurately write words.

Curriculum Considerations

1. Spelling vocabulary includes words drawn from children’s reading materials, children’s writing,
self-selected words, high-frequency word lists 1,2, and pattern words.
• Spelling curriculum should include words from various sources to make learning relevant
and engaging for children.

Here’s a breakdown of each source mentioned:

Children’s reading materials: Words from books, magazines, or other reading materials that children are
familiar with will help them to connect spelling with their everyday reading experiences. For instance, A
teacher is reading a story about a magical forest to her class. The story includes words like "enchanted,"
"mystery," and "wandering." As the teacher reads, she points out these words and emphasizes their spelling.
Later, when introducing a new spelling list, she includes these words. The students are more likely to
remember the spelling of these words because they have already encountered them in a familiar context.

Children’s writing: These are the words they use in their own writing. For example, the teacher give them
a task wherein they will write a story about a pet dog. In their writing, they use words like "happy," "bark,"
and "play." When the teacher introduces a new spelling list, she includes these words. The students are more
likely to remember the spelling because they have already used these words in their own writing.
 22

Self-selected words: These are the words that children choose to learn on their own, rather than being
assigned by a teacher. It allows children to select words that are meaningful and interesting to them. For
example, a child who is interested in space exploration might choose to learn words like "astronaut,"
"galaxy," and "telescope." They are motivated to learn these words because they are passionate about space
and want to expand their vocabulary related to this topic.

High-frequency word lists 1, 2: These lists typically include words that are commonly found in everyday
texts. High-frequency word lists are divided into different levels or tiers based on frequency and difficulty:

Tier 1 words: These are the most common words in the English language, often referred to as "sight words."
Examples include "the," "and," "said," "to," and "in."

Tier 2 words: These are less common than Tier 1 words but still frequently appear in academic texts and
everyday reading. Examples include "because," "important," "different," and "interesting."

Pattern words: Pattern words are words that follow predictable patterns of letters and sounds. This means
that they have a consistent structure, making them easier to learn and remember.

Example:

-at pattern: cat, hat, bat, sat, mat

-ight pattern: night, fight, light, right, might

2. Students are typically taught phonemic awareness and phoneme-grapheme associations (reserving
the least consistent mappings, such as consonants /k/ and /z/ and long vowels, for last) in
kindergarten and first grade. Common spelling patterns (e.g., phonograms or rime families 3,4,5)
are taught in first and second grades. Morphological structures (i.e., roots and affixes 3,4,5,6) and
helpful spelling rules (e.g., add es to make words ending in s, z, x, ch, or sh plural) are taught in
second grade and beyond.
• Kindergarten and first grade: Students learn about phonemic awareness, which is the
ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds in words. They also learn about
phoneme-grapheme associations, which is the connection between sounds and letters. This
foundation is crucial for developing spelling skills.

Example in Phonemic Awareness and Phoneme-Grapheme Associations:

The teacher says a word, such as "cat," and asks students to identify the initial sound (/k/). This
helps them isolate individual sounds in words. Then, the teacher writes the letter "c" on the board,
connecting the sound with its visual representation. This helps students understand the relationship between
sounds and letters.

The purpose of this activity is to reinforce students' understanding of individual sounds in words
and their corresponding letters.

• First and second grade: Students are introduced to common spelling patterns, also known as
phonograms or rime families. These patterns are groups of letters that have the same ending sound
 23

(e.g., "-at," "-ight"). By understanding these patterns, students can learn new words more
efficiently.

Example in Spelling Patterns:

The teacher introduces a specific pattern, like "-at," and presents a list of words that follow that
pattern (e.g., "cat," "hat," "mat," "sat"). By analyzing these words, students can identify the common pattern
and apply it to create their own words. This helps them understand the structure of words and predict
spellings.

The purpose of this activity is to teach students common spelling patterns and help them recognize
and apply them to new words.

• Second grade and beyond: Students delve into morphological structures, which are the parts of
words that can be broken down into smaller units. This includes roots, which are the basic forms
of words, and affixes, which are added to roots to change their meaning or part of speech (e.g.,
prefixes like "re-" or suffixes like "-ing"). They also learn helpful spelling rules, such as adding
"es" to make words ending in "s," "z," "x," "ch," or "sh" plural.

Example in Morphological Structures:

The teacher presents a word, such as "happy," and breaks it down into its root word ("hap") and
suffix ("-y"). Students learn that the suffix changes the meaning of the word from an adjective to an adverb.
By understanding these word parts, students can better understand the structure of words and predict
spellings.

The purpose of this activity is to teach students about word parts (roots and affixes) and how they
can change the meaning of words.

Example in Spelling Rules:

The teacher presents a list of words that follow the rule (e.g., "bus," "buzz," "box," "watch," "wish")
and explains the rule. Students practice applying the rule to create plurals of other words. This helps them
understand and apply consistent spelling patterns.

The purpose of this activity is to teach students specific spelling rules, such as the rule for forming
plurals of words ending in "s," "z," "x," "ch," or "sh."

By mastering these concepts, students develop a strong foundation for spelling and can become
more confident and accurate spellers.

3. Students are taught systematic and effective strategies for studying new spelling words (e.g.,
mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies).
• Students are taught various strategies to help them memorize and recall new spelling words
effectively. These strategies can include:

Mnemonic spelling links are memory aids or tricks that help students associate new words with
familiar images, sounds, or other information. This can make it easier to remember the spelling of
unfamiliar words.
 24

Examples of mnemonic spelling links:

• Visual associations: Creating a mental image or picture related to the word. For example, to
remember the spelling of "believe," a student might imagine a person believing in a magic wand.

• Acronyms or acrostics: Using the first letter of each word in a phrase or sentence to create a
memorable acronym or acrostic. For example, to remember the spelling of "HOME" a student
might use the phrase "Happy, Optimistic, Motivated, Enthusiastic."

• Rhymes or songs: Creating rhymes or songs to help remember the spelling of words. For example,
to remember the spelling of "separate," a student might create a rhyme like "Separate, separate, let's
not wait."

Multi-sensory strategies involve using multiple senses to engage with and learn new words. This
might involve tracing the words with a finger or tracing it in the air, saying the word out loud repeatedly,
writing the word multiple times.

4. Previously taught spelling words are periodically reviewed to promote retention.

• It means that spelling words that have already been taught should be reviewed regularly to
help students remember and retain them. For example, Sir Lyndon might create a weekly
spelling review activity where students practice spelling words they have learned in
previous lessons. This could involve a spelling test, a word search, or a game that focuses
on reviewing previously learned words.
5. Correct use of spelling vocabulary in students’ written work is monitored and reinforced.
• Teachers should carefully check students' written work to ensure that they are using
spelling vocabulary correctly. If students make spelling mistakes, teachers should provide
feedback and guidance to help them improve their spelling accuracy.

Example: A teacher is reviewing a student's essay and notices that they have misspelled the word
"necessary." The teacher provides feedback by circling the misspelled word and writing the correct spelling
above it. The teacher might also offer additional guidance, such as explaining the spelling rule or providing
a mnemonic device to help the student remember the correct spelling.

6. Students are taught and encouraged to use dictionaries, spell checkers, another resources to
determine the spelling of unknown words.
• It means that students should be taught how to use dictionaries, spell checkers, and other
resources to find the correct spelling of unfamiliar words. This helps them become
independent learners and develop strategies for improving their spelling skills. For
instance, Sheena was given a task writing a story and comes across a word she didn’t know
how to spell. I as her teacher I will encourage her to use a dictionary to find the correct
spelling. Sheena looks up the word in the dictionary and learns the correct spelling.
7. Spelling “demons” and other difficult words are posted on wall charts.
• This statement means that challenging or frequently misspelled words, often referred to as
"spelling demons," are displayed on wall charts. These charts serve as visual reminders and
can help students improve their spelling accuracy. For example, a teacher creates a wall
 25

chart with a list of commonly misspelled words, such as "separate," "necessary," and
"weird." The chart is displayed prominently in the classroom, and students can refer to it
as needed to check the spelling of these words.

Weekly Routines

1. A minimum of 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for spelling instruction.

• To help students learn to spell better, teachers spend at least 60 to 75 minutes each week
teaching them about spelling. This gives them enough time to practice and learn.
2. Students take a Monday pretest to determine which words they need to study during subsequent
activities and to set spelling performance goals.
• On Monday, students take a test to see which spelling words they don't know yet. This
helps them focus on learning those words instead of wasting time on words they already
know. They can also set goals for how well they want to do in spelling.

Example: Imagine you're learning a new sport, like basketball. Before you start practicing, you take a quiz
to see how well you know the rules. If you don't know many rules, you'll focus on learning those first. This
is similar to a spelling pretest. It helps you figure out which spelling words you need to study the most.

3. After studying new spelling words, students take a Friday post-test to determine which words were
mastered.
• After students have learned new spelling words, they take a post-test on Friday to see if
they know them well. This helps them understand how much they've learned and what they
still need to work on.

Example: Students take a spelling test on the 10 words. If they spell a word correctly, they've mastered it.
If they misspell a word, they know they need to practice it more.

4. Immediately after taking a spelling test, students correct their misspellings.

• Correcting misspellings immediately reinforces the correct spelling in the student's mind.
Students can identify specific patterns in their errors, such as confusing similar-looking
words or misspelling certain sounds.

Example: A student takes a spelling test and misspells the word "necessary." After reviewing their test, they
can correct the misspelling and analyze the error. They might notice that they confused the "s" and "c"
sounds. By understanding this pattern, they can be more mindful of these sounds when spelling similar
words in the future.

5. The teacher conducts word sorts and guided spelling activities to explicitly teach spelling patterns
and rules at the beginning of the week.
• At the beginning of the week, the teacher helps students learn about spelling patterns and
rules by doing special activities called word sorts and guided spelling. These activities help
students understand how words are put together and spelled correctly.
6. Daily opportunities are provided for cumulative study and testing of new spelling words (e.g.,
through computer-assisted instruction).
 26

• Every day, students have a chance to review and practice all the spelling words they've
learned so far. This helps them remember the words better and improve their spelling skills.
They might use computers to do this, like playing spelling games or doing spelling quizzes.
7. Students work together each day to learn new spelling words.
• When students work together to learn new spelling words, they can benefit from a variety
of advantages like peer support because working collaboratively can provide students with
encouragement, support, and feedback, creating a positive learning environment. Another
one is sharing knowledge, by working together, students can share their knowledge and
understanding of spelling concepts, leading to a deeper understanding for everyone. And
lastly, active engagement, collaborative activities often involve active participation, such
as playing games or discussing spelling strategies, which can help students stay engaged
and motivated.

Example: One fun and engaging way for students to work together to learn new spelling words is through
spelling charades. In this activity, one student acts out a spelling word while the rest of the class tries to
guess what it is. The student can use gestures, expressions, and props to convey the meaning of the word.
This activity can help students learn new words in a creative and memorable way, while also promoting
teamwork and communication skills.

8. While studying, students monitor their on-task behavior or the number of times they correctly spell
a target word, to promote active learning.
• When students are studying, they should pay attention to how well they're doing. They can
keep track of how often they spell words correctly to see if they're improving. This helps
them learn better and be more active in their studies.

Example: To monitor their on-task behavior and spelling progress, students can use a self-assessment
checklist. The checklist might include statements like:

• I stayed focused during my spelling practice.

• I asked for help when I needed it.
• I practiced spelling each word correctly at least 10 times.
• I used a dictionary or spelling rule to help me with difficult words.

Students can rate themselves on each statement using a scale of 1-5, with 1 being "never" and 5
being "always." By completing this checklist regularly, students can identify areas where they need to
improve and set goals for their learning.

IV. DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Individual Activity
• Provide each student with a copy of the excerpt containing errors.
• Ask students to carefully read the excerpt and identify any errors in spelling, grammar, and
punctuation.
 27

• Instruct students to underline or circle the errors and write the correct word, phrase, or
punctuation mark above or below the error.
• Students should answer the following questions.

• How did you feel while editing the excerpt?

• What were the most challenging types of errors to identify?
• What strategies can you use to become better in identifying these errors?
• How will this activity help you improve your writing skills?

• Facilitate a class discussion where students share their answers and discuss the types of errors
they identified.

Group Activity: Creating a Sample Teaching Plan for Effective Writing Approach

• Divide students into small groups and assign each group an instructional approach. Students should
brainstorm and plan a teaching sample that would include the given writing approach. Guide
students through a planning exercise focusing on objectives, activities, and assessment and
encourage the use of a think-aloud strategy. Allow time for groups to share plans and get feedback
from classmates.

V. GENERALIZATION

The three main areas of difficulty in writing which are knowledge, skills, and motivation represent the
core challenges that most students encounter. These difficulties impact their ability to produce ideas,
organize thoughts, and persist through the writing process. Identifying which specific area a student
struggles with allows teachers to target their instruction effectively, whether addressing gaps in
knowledge, improving technical writing skills, or fostering better motivation and confidence.
Understanding these areas of difficulty is crucial as it not only helps in providing appropriate
interventions but also serves as a foundation for the next step, which is integrating qualities of strong
writing instruction. By focusing on tailored instruction that responds to these difficulties, teachers can
better equip students to overcome their writing difficulties and develop as confident, capable writers.

The discussion also emphasizes the significance of effective writing instruction and identifies the
essential characteristics that lead to strong writing instruction. It highlights that literacy is more than
simply reading and acknowledges the complexities of learning to write. Effective writing instruction
should emphasize authentic writing tasks, provide specific instruction, and offer procedural assistance.
It should also have a shared language for feedback, be integrated with reading and topic area education,
and provide chances for professional growth. By including these crucial aspects, educators may help
students become confident and proficient writers.

High level of teacher support is what the students need when they are being introduced to a new skill
and our aim now to achieve a low teacher support level where students practice independence in their
 28

writing development, releasing them from the guided writing instructions of a teacher or parent can be
possible through this kind of approaches and strategy in writing instruction, which have different
degrees, could be used in the teaching-learning process of writing with different students. Hence,
exposing the students, in particular, to real-life, functional use of writing as a guide to writing helps in
molding them to be effective and confident writers.

The importance of Adaptations for struggling writers encompass several key strategies aimed at
enhancing their writing skills. These include increasing writing time and providing supportive
learning environments with accessible tools. Simplifying instructional materials and employing
graphic organizers can facilitate understanding, while effective teaching strategies focus on writing
mechanics and provide personalized support. Modifying task demands, such as allowing additional
time and incorporating technology, further aids in reducing barriers. Additionally, enabling oral
presentations and collaborative roles in group projects promotes engagement and skill development.
Overall, these adaptations aim to create a more inclusive and effective writing experience for all
learners.

The unique needs and strengths of every student should be taken into account when creating effective
adjustments. To meet the various needs of struggling writers, an array of accommodations including
those relating to learning resources, evaluation, and the classroom setting is frequently required. The
language used in instructional materials should be simple, direct, and free of unnecessary detail.
Graphic organizers, charts, and other visual aides can be used to assist struggling writers comprehend
and interact with the content more effectively. Teachers can establish a more inclusive and fair
learning environment for struggling writers by putting in place modifications that are tailored,
encouraging, and consistent.

A comprehensive spelling curriculum should incorporate a variety of strategies and resources to support
students' spelling development. By providing students with opportunities to learn from diverse
vocabulary sources, receive systematic instruction in phonics and morphology, utilize effective
teaching strategies, and engage in ongoing review and practice, teachers can create a supportive
environment for students to develop strong spelling skills. Furthermore, a comprehensive curriculum
should emphasize the importance of monitoring students' progress, providing feedback, and
encouraging the use of resources like dictionaries and spell checkers. By incorporating these elements,
teachers can ensure that students are equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary for becoming
proficient spellers.

In conclusion, it is noted that writing instruction is a complex process that takes into account students’
difficulties in the process of writing. For this reason, through positive environment, teacher-directed
instruction, and motivation, the teachers are able to assist students in overcoming the challenges and
become confident, capable writers. It is imperative that the specific skills required to write and the
process of writing as a whole should be both taken into consideration to understand in detail how
students could be helped and provided equal chance to perform well in writing.
 29

VI. EVALUATION

Instructions: Multiple- Choice Questions. Read and analyze the questions carefully. Choose the letter
of the best answer.

4. Which area of difficulty in writing is when students attribute their struggles to internal,
uncontrollable factors like believing they aren’t smart enough?
E. Knowledge Difficulties
F. Skill Difficulties
G. Motivation Difficulties
H. Instruction Difficulties

5. Analyze the level of scaffolding provided in each approach. Which approach provides the greatest
amount of support while decreasing progressively as the students advance?

E. Modelled Writing
F. Shared Writing
G. Guided Writing
H. Independent Writing

6. Which of the following is NOT a procedural support for writing?

E. Checklist for revision or editing
F. Standardized Tests
G. Conference with Teachers
H. Planning forms and charts

5. Which area of difficulty in writing involves challenges such as visual-motor integration weaknesses
and fine motor skill issues?
E. Knowledge Difficulties
F. Skill Difficulties
G. Motivation Difficulties
H. Instruction Difficulties

6. Consider the advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of approach. Which approach
seems to be beneficial in the development of the students’ independent writing skills but might be
difficult for some learners due to poor self-motivation?
E. Modelled Writing
F. Shared Writing
G. Guided Writing
H. Independent Writing

7. What is the importance of integrating writing instruction with reading and other area of instruction?
E. To reduce workload of teachers
 30

F. To prepare students for standardized tests

G. To make writing enjoyable for students
H. To help students identify the connection between reading, writing, and other subjects

8. Which area of difficulty in writing occurs when students have trouble understanding the structures
required for different types of writing?
E. Knowledge Difficulties
F. Skill Difficulties
G. Motivation Difficulties
H. Instruction Difficulties

21. Procedural supports can help students overcome challenges in the writing process. Established
routine is essential in creating a positive and productive writing environment.
E. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
F. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
G. Both statements are true.
H. Both statements are false.

22. The base word graph in the word Dysgraphia refers to:
E. The ability to speak a word
F. The ability of producing letter forms by hand
G. The ability to draw symbols
H. The ability to express one’s thoughts

23. Knowledge plays an important role in writing, as it helps students produce ideas, disorganized
thoughts, and present clear and vague information. However, students without writing difficulties
often face challenges in various areas of knowledge, which affect their writing abilities.
E. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
F. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
G. Both statements are true.
H. Both statements are false.

24. Continuing professional development is essential for teachers who are already experienced in
writing instruction. Explicit instruction is only necessary for beginning writers.
E. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
F. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.
G. Both statements are true.
H. Both statements are false.

25. Motivation is a critical factor in successful writing. Students who excel with writing often face
challenges in setting goals, maintaining a positive mindset, and staying motivated to improve.
E. The first statement is true, and the second statement is false.
 31

F. The first statement is false, and the second statement is true.

G. Both statements are true.
H. Both statements are false.

26. Which of these is the most appropriate for presenting new writing skills or concepts to the students,
providing a clear model for them to follow?
E. Modelled Writing
F. Shared Writing
G. Interactive Writing
H. Guided Writing

27. The following are symptoms of Dysgraphia, EXCEPT:

E. Trouble forming letters shapes
F. Tight, awkward, or painful grip on a pencil
G. Reading a passage or sentences
H. Difficulty following a line or staying within margins

28. Reflect on the role of the teacher in each approach. Which of these approaches has the teacher
playing a minimal support, offering support while the students write?
E. Modelled Writing
F. Shared Writing
G. Interactive Writing
H. Independent Writing

29. Individuals with this subtype of dysgraphia typically exhibit illegible and slow handwriting, poor
drawing and tracing skills, and slow finger-tapping.
E. Spatial Dysgraphia
F. Motor Disgraphia
G. Acquired Dysgraphia
H. Linguistic Dysgraphia

30. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

E. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
F. To identify which words students need to focus on
G. To assign grades for the week
H. To discourage students from studying

31. According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD), the following are
symptoms of dysgraphia, EXCEPT:
E. Trouble forming letters shapes
F. Tight, awkward, or painful grip on a pencil
 32

G. Difficulty following a line or staying within margins

H. Difficulty in reading a textbook

32. Which of the following is NOT a source of spelling vocabulary for students?
E. Children's reading materials
F. Children's writing
G. Teacher-assigned spelling lists
H. Self-selected words

33. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

E. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
F. To identify which words students need to focus on
G. To assign grades for the week
H. To discourage students from studying

34. Which of the following is a multi-sensory strategy for teaching spelling?

A. Tracing the words with a finger or tracing it in the air
B. Saying the word out loud repeatedly
C. Writing the word multiple times
D. All of the above

35. How often should spelling instruction be incorporated into the weekly curriculum?
A. 15-30 minutes per week
B. 30-45 minutes per week
C. 45-60 minutes per week
D. 60-75 minutes per week

36. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

A. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
B. To identify which words student need to focus on
C. To assign grades for the week
D. To discourage students from studying

37. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

A. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
B. To identify which words student need to focus on
C. To assign grades for the week
D. To discourage students from studying

38. What is the purpose of a Monday pretest in spelling instruction?

A. To assess students’ overall spelling ability
 33

B. To identify which words students need to focus on

C. To assign grades for the week
D. To discourage students from studying

VII. ASSIGNMENT

Designing a Basic Remedial Writing Activity

Objective:

➢ To create a straightforward writing activity that helps students address a specific writing
challenge.

Instructions:

1. Select a Writing Challenge (5 points)

➢ Identify a Common Issue: Choose a specific writing challenge that students might need
help with, such as writing complete sentences, using punctuation correctly, or organizing
thoughts.
2. Design a Writing Activity (15 points)
➢ Create the Activity: Develop a simple writing activity that targets the chosen writing
challenge. Your activity should be engaging and easy for students to understand and
complete.

Example: If the challenge is punctuation, create an activity where students add punctuation marks
to a list of unpunctuated sentences.

Note:

1. Print the assignment on a short bond paper.

2. Use Times New Roman (TNR) font with a size of 11.

VIII. REFERENCES

Tulo, Dr. Ninez. Module in Elect 1: Remedial Instruction in English. Tarlac City, Tarlac State University,
pp. 43–45.

Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology. Remedial Instruction Reference

Material. Agusan del Sur, Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology, pp. 36–37.

International Dyslexia Association. (2019). Understanding Dysgraphia - International Dyslexia

Association. International Dyslexia Association.

Cleveland Clinic. (2022, June 15). Dysgraphia: What It Is, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment. Cleveland
Clinic.
 34

Frye, D. (2017, February 15). Dysgraphia: Symptoms of a Writing Learning Disability. ADDitude.

Understanding Dysgraphia. (n.d.). Child Mind Institute.

Dysgraphia Treatment for Children. (n.d.). Www.understood.org.

Dysgraphia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Management. (2018, December 7). Healthline.

Instruction | Writing. (n.d.). Special Connections. https://specialconnections.ku.edu/instruction/writing

Six principles for high-quality, effective writing instruction for all students. (n.d.). The Thomas B. Fordham
Institute. https://fordhaminstitute.org/national/commentary/six-principles-high-quality-effective-writing-
instruction-all-students

Smith, T. (2023, March 31). The Importance of Writing Instruction. Learning A-Z.

Ministry of Education. (2005). A Guide To Effective Instruction in Writing. Kindergarten to Grade 3.

Queen’s Printer for Ontario.

Remedial Instruction Majorship

Vocabulary.(n.d.).Scribd.

Copriviza, C. (2024, June 23). How to Teach Handwriting: 13 Effective Strategies. wikiHow.

MacKenzie, B. (2019b, July 2). How to teach handwriting—and why it matters. Edutopia.

Victoria State Government. (2019). Handwriting. Vic.gov.au; Education and Training.

Tips for Teaching Handwriting. (n.d.). Retrieved September 9, 2024, from

https://www.readingrockets.org/sites/default/files/migrated/pdfs/Tips%20for%20Teaching%20Hwriting.pd
f

Olivar, J. P. (2016, September 16). Teaching spelling [Slide show]. SlideShare.

Spelling instruction procedures. (n.d.). Special Connections.

Teaching spelling Effectively: Tips and tricks. (n.d.).