9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

Department of Science and Humanities

PH3256-Physics for Information Science
Unit- I
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Part – A
1) What are the failures of classical free electron theory? (Nov/Dec’23)
 Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb the supplied energy. But
quantum theory will absorb certain amount of supplied energy
 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators could not be explained by
this theory
 The phenomenon such as photo – electric effect, Compton effect and black body
radiation could not be explained by this theory
2) Calculate the fermi energy of copper at 0K. atomic weight and density of copper are
63.54 and 8950 kg/m3 respectively.
(Nov/Dec’23)
The number density of conduction electrons is given by:
n = NAρz/A
n = 6.022×1023 × 8950 / (63.54×10−3)
= 8.48 x 1028
EF= ℏ2/ 2m (3π2n)2/3
Substituting values:
EF=1.13×10−18 J
EF=1.13×10−18/ 1.602×10−19
The fermi energy of copper =7.04 eV
3) The density and atomic weight of Cu are 8900 kg m-3 and 63.5 g/mol. The relaxation
time of electrons in Cu at 300K is 10-14s. Calculate the electrical conductivity of copper.
(Apr/May’24)
Drude conductivity formula
σ=ne2τ / m
σ= (8.44×1028) × (1.602×10−19)2 × (10−14) / 9.109×10−31
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |1
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

The electrical conductivity of copper = 5.88×107 S/m.

4) What is meant by free electron? (Apr/May’24)
The valence electrons of an atoms free to move throughout the volume of metal like
gas molecules of a container are called free electrons
5) Define effective mass of an electron. (Apr/May’23)
The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential is called
effective mass of an electron. It is denoted by m*.
6) Define fermi level. (Apr/May’23)
Fermi Level is the state at which the probability of electron occupation is 50% at any
temperature above 0K and also it is the highest reference energy level of a particle at absolute
0K
7) What are the postulates of classical free electron theory? (Apr/May’22)
 It is used to verify Ohm’s law
 It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities of metals
 It is used to derive Wiedemann – Franz law
 It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
8) Define mobility of electrons. (Apr/May’22)
The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field is defined as the mobility of
the electrons   d / E. Its unit is mV-1 S -1
9) State Wiedemann-Franz law. (Nov/Dec’23)
The ratio of electrical conductivity (K) to the thermal conductivity (σ) is directly
proportional to absolute temperature (T). i.e., K /   T (or) K /  = LT.
10) Calculate the electrical resistivity of sodium at 0°C. It has 2.533 x 10 28 electrons per
unit volume and has a mean free time of 3.1 x10 -14 S. (Nov/Dec’23)
Electrical resistivity ρ = 1/ σ
σ = ne2τ / m
σ = 2.533 x 1028 x (1.602×10−19)2 x 3.1 x10-14 / 9.109×10−31
σ = 2.21×107S/m
ρ = 1/ σ
ρ = 1/ 2.21×107
ρ = 4.52×10−8Ω⋅m.
11) Define mean free path. (Apr/May’22)

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |2

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied field is known as mean free path.   
12) Define relaxation time of an electron. (Apr/May’21)
The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from the
distributed position due to application of an external electric field is called relaxation time.
13) Define drift velocity of electron. How is it different from the thermal velocity of an
electron. (Apr/May’21)
The velocity acquired by the free electron due to the application of electric field in the
direction opposite to the direction of electric field. The thermal velocity is random in nature
and its value is very high (105 m/s).
14) What is Lorentz number? (May/Jun’22)
The ratio between thermal conductivity (K) of metal to the product of electrical
conductivity (σ) of a metal and absolute temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is called
Lorentz number and is given by
L = K / σT
15) Define electrical conductivity. What is its unit?
(Nov/Dec’22)
The amount of electric charge (Q) conducted per unit time (t) across unit area (A) of
the solid per unit applied electrical field (E) is called as electrical conductivity.
σ = q/ tAE
Its unit is ohm-1 m-1 or mho m-1.
16) Write down the expression for the fermi distribution law and explain for the
electrons in a metal. (Apr/May’22)
The probability of the electron F (E) occupying at a given energy level at temperature
T is known as Fermi Distribution Function. It is given by
1
F(E) = 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇

Where EF – Fermi Level; k – Boltzmann Constant; T – Temperature.

17) Define fermi level and fermi energy with its importance. (Nov/Dec’22)
Fermi Level: It is the state at which the probability of electron occupation is 50% at any
temperature above 0K and also it is the highest reference energy level of a particle at absolute
0K. Fermi energy: It is the energy of the state at which the probability of the electron
occupation is 50% at any temperature above 0K. It is also the maximum energy of the filled

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |3

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

states at 0K. Importance: Fermi level and Fermi energy determine the probability of an
electron occupying a given energy level at given temperature.

18) Define density of states. What is it use? (May/Jun’23)

It is defined as the number of available electron states per unit volume in an energy
interval E and E+dE. It is denoted by Z(E) i.e.,
No.of available energy states between E and E+dE in a cubical metal piece
Z(E) =
Volume of that cubical metal piece

19) Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons with a mobility of 3.5 x 10 -3 m2 V-1 s-1
in copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V/m.
(May/Jun’20)
The drift velocity vd of free electrons = vd =μ E
= 3.5 x 10-3 x 0.5 = 1.75 x 10-3
vd = 0.00175 ms-1
20) The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper at 20°C are 390 Wm-1K-1 and
5.87 x 107Ω-1m-1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.
(Apr/May’21)
Lorentz number L = K /σ T
L = 390 / 5.87 x 107 x 293
= 0.227 x 10-7
L = 2.27 x 10-8 WΩK-2
Part – B
1) Using classical free electron theory, derive the mathematical expressions for electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals and hence deduce Widemann-Franz
law.
(Nov/Dec’22)
Expression For Electrical Conductivity of a Metal
When an electric field E is applied to an electron of charge ‘e' in a metal rod, the
electron moves in opposite direction to the applied field with a velocity vd (Fig. 1.1). This
velocity is known as drift velocity.

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |4

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

Fig. 1.1 Movement of free electrons in a metal rod

Force experienced by the electron F = e E …(1)
This force accelerates the electron and hence, it gains acceleration 'a',
From, Newton's second law of motion, the force on the electron
F = Mass of the electron (m) × acceleration (a)
F = ma ...(2)
From the equation (1) and (2), we have
ma = eE
a = eE / m ...(3)
From equation (3), it is found that the electron should be accelerated continuously due to the
applied electric field. But the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core and other
free electrons. Hence it loses kinetic energy and velocity. Thus, after each collision, the
velocity of electron increases until the next collision takes place.
Average drift velocity of electron is = vd
If τc is collision time, then acceleration.
α = vd / τ
νd = ατ ....(4)
Substituting the equation (3) in (4)
Vd = (eE / m) τ
vd = (e τ / m) E ....(5)
But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given as
J = nevd ....(6)
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6), we have
J = ne ((e τ / m) E)
J/E = ne2τ / m ...(7)
According to Ohm's law, current density (J) is expressed as
J = σ E or σ = J / E ...(8)
On comparing the equation (7) and (8), we have
Electrical conductivity σ = ne2 τ / m ...(9)
The equation (9) represents electrical conductivity of the metal
Thermal Conductivity (K):

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |5

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

We know that the amount of heat conducted between the two ends of a metal rod.
𝑑𝑇
Q = KA t
𝑑𝑥
𝑄
Thermal conductivity K = 𝑑𝑇 t
𝐴( )
𝑑𝑥

It is defined as the amount of heat conducted per unit time through the material having unit
area of cross-section per unit temperature gradient.
If area of cross section A is '1'm2 time of flow of heat t is 1 second, then
𝑄
K= 𝑑𝑇
(𝑑𝑥)

𝑑𝑇
Also, Q = K ( )
𝑑𝑥
Q - Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross-sectional area.
𝑑𝑇
( )- Temperature gradient.
𝑑𝑥
Expression for Thermal Conductivity of a Metal:
Consider two cross-sections A and B of a metal rod separated by a distance λ. Let A be
at a high temperature (T) and B at a low temperature (T - dT).
Now, heat flows from A to B by the free electrons (Fig. 1.2)

Fig 1.2. Heat conduction in a metal rod

Conduction electron per unit volume = n
Average velocity of the electrons = v
During the movement of the electrons in the metal rod, the elastic collision takes place.
Hence, the electrons near A lose their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic
energy.
3
At A, average kinetic energy of an electron = ( ) kT ...(1)
2
where k - Boltzmann's constant
T- Temperature at A.
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |6
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

3
At B, average kinetic energy of the electron = ( ) k (T- dT) …(2)
2
The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B
3 3
=( ) kT - ( ) k (T- dT)
2 2
3 3 3 3
=( ) kT - ( ) kT + ( ) kdT = ( ) kdT …(3)
2 2 2 2
1
Number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time from A to B = ( ) nv ....(4)
6
The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in unit time
1 3
=( ) nv × ( ) kdT
6 2
1
=( )nvkdT …(5)
4
Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per unit area per unit time
1
=-( )nvkdT …(6)
4
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time
1 1
Q=( )nvkdT – (− )nvkdT
4 4
1 1
Q=( )nvkdT + ( )nvkdT
4 4
1 1
Q=( ) + ( ) nvkdT
4 4
1
Q=( ) nvkdT ...(7)
2
But, from the definition of thermal conductivity, the amount of heat conducted per unit area
per unit time
Q = K dT/ λ
1
( ) nvkdT = K dT/ λ
2
1
K=( )nvkλ …(8)
2
We know that for the metals
relaxation time (τ) = collision time (τc)
τ = τc = λ/v
τv = λ …(9)

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |7

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

substituting the equation (9) in the equation (8), we have

1
K=( )nvkτv
2
1
K=( ) n v2 k τ …(10)
2
The equation (10) is the expression for the thermal conductivity of a metal.
Wiedemann - Franz Law:
Statement:
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical conductivity (σ) is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals at a given temperature.
K/ σ ∝ T
K/ σ = LT
where L is a proportionality constant.
It is known as Lorentz number. Its value is 1.12 × 10-8 WΩK-2
Derivation:
Wiedemann - Franz law is derived from the expressions of thermal and electrical
conductivities of a metal.
We know that
Thermal conductivity of the metal
1
K=( ) n v2 k τ …(1)
2
Electrical conductivity of the metal
σ = ne2 τ / m …(2)
Thermal conductivity/ Electrical conductivity =
𝐾 1 (n 𝑣 2 k τ)
=( ) n𝑒2 τ
σ 2 ( m )

1 (n 𝑣2 k τ)
=( ) ×m
2 (n𝑒 2 τ )

𝐾 1 (m 𝑣 2 k )
=( ) …(3)
σ 2 e
The kinetic energy of the electron is given by
1 3
( ) m v2 = ( ) kT ...(4)
2 2
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we have

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |8

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

𝐾 3 (kT × k)
=( )
σ 2 𝑒2
3 𝑘2T
=( )
2 𝑒2
𝐾 3 2
= ( ) (ke) 𝑇
σ 2
𝐾
= LT …(5)
σ
2
k
Where L = (e) is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.
𝐾
∝T …(6)
σ
Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of the metal
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal. This law is verified
experimentally and it is found to hold good at normal temperature. But this law is not
applicable at very low temperature. Wiedemann - Franz law clearly shows that if a metal has
high thermal conductivity, it should also have high electrical conductivity. Among the metals,
the best electrical conductors (silver, copper, aluminium) are also the best conductors of heat.

2) What is density of states? Derive an expression for density of states.

(Nov/Dec’22)
Density Of Energy States
The ability of a metal to conduct electricity depends on the number of quantum states and
also the energy levels which are available for the electrons. Hence, it is essential to find the
energy states which are available for the occupation of the electrons.
Definition
It is defined as the number of available energy states per unit volume in an energy
interval E and E + dE. It is denoted by Z (E). It is given by
Z(E) dE = Number of energy states in between energy E and E + dE in a metal piece (N(E)
dE) / Volume of the metal piece (V).
Derivation:
Let us consider a cubical metal of side 'a'. In order to find the number of energy states
available in the metal in between the energy E and E + dE, a sphere is considered with three
quantum numbers nx, ny, nz as coordinate axes in three-dimensional space as shown in Fig.

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science Pa ge |9

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

1.3. A radius vector n is drawn from origin 'O' to a point with co-ordinates nx, ny, nz in this
space. All the points on the surface of the sphere have the same energy E.

Fig 1.3 Representation of energy states in quantum number space Fig 1.4
Thus, n such that n2 = nx2 + ny2 + nz2 denotes the radius of the sphere corresponding to energy
E.
n2 +h2
E=
8ma2
This sphere is further divided into many shells. Each shell represents a particular combination
of quantum numbers (nx, ny, and nz). Therefore, a shell denotes a particular energy value E
corresponding to a particular radius n. In this space, unit volume represents one energy state
shown in Fig. 1.4. Thus, the volume of the sphere of radius n is equal to the number of energy
states up to E. Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius 'n'.
4
= π n3 (Volume of the sphere) …(1)
3
Since the quantum numbers nx, ny, nz can have only positive integer values, only one
octant of the sphere, i.e., (1/8)th of the spherical volume has to be considered. Only one
octant of the sphere has all the quantum numbers nx, ny and nz as positive.
Therefore, the number of available energy states within one octant of the sphere of radius
1 4
= π n3 …(2)
8 3
'n' corresponding to energy E.
Similarly, the number of available energy states within one octant of the sphere of radius 'n +
dn' corresponding to energy E + De
1 4
= π (n + dn)3 …(3)
8 3
The number of available energy states between the shells of radii n and n + dn ie., between the
energy values E and E + dE is determined by subtracting equation (2) from equation (3). Thus,
we have
1 4 1 4
N (E) dE = = π (n + dn)3- π n3
8 3 8 3
1 4
= π [ (n+dn)3 - n3]
8 3
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 10
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)
π
N (E) dE = [ n3 + dn3 + 3n2dn + 3n dn2 - n3]
8
Since dn is very small, the higher powers dn2 and dn3 are neglected.
π
N (E) dE = 3n2dn
6
π
N (E) dE = n2dn
2
π
N (E) dE = n (n dn) ...(4)
2
We know that the energy of an electron in a cubical metal piece of sides 'a' is given by
E= (nx2 + ny2 + nz2) h2/ 8ma2
n2 h2
E= …(5)
8ma2
8ma2 E
n2 = …(6)
h2
Taking square root of the eqn (6), we have
1/2
8ma2 E
n= ( ) …(7)
h2
Differentiating the eqn (6), we get
8ma2 dE
2ndn =
h2
8ma2 dE
ndn = ...(8)
2h2
Substituting eqns (7) and (8) in eqn (4), we have
1/2
π 8ma2 E 8ma2 dE
N (E) dE = ( )
2 h2 2h2
1/2
1 π 8ma2 E 8ma2 dE
= ( )
22 h2 h2
1/2
π 8ma2
= ( ) E 1/2 dE ...(9)
4 h2
Pauli's exclusion principle states that two electrons of opposite spins can occupy each state.
Hence, the number of energy states available for electron occupancy is given by
3/2
π 8ma2
N (E) dE = 2 ( ) E 1/2 dE
4 h2
3
π (8𝑚) ⁄2
= (a2) 3/2 E 1/2 dE
2 (ℎ2 )3⁄2

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 11

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

π a3
N (E) dE = (8m) 3/2 E 1/2 dE ...(10)
2 h3
(8m) 3/2 = (8m) 1 (8m) 1/2
= 4 x 2m (4 x 2m) 1/2
= 4 x (2m) 1 (22 x 2m) 1/2
= 4 x 2 x (2m) 3/2
= 8 (2m) 3/2
π a3
N (E) dE = 8 (2m) 3/2 E 1/2
dE
2 h3
πa3
= πa3/ h3 4 (2m)3/2 E 1/2 dE
h3
4π
N (E) dE = a3 (2m)3/2 E 1/2 dE ...(11)
h3
Density of states is given by the number of energy states per unit volume.
N(E)dE
Z (E) dE = ...(12)
v
on substituting for N(E) dE and V, we have
Density of states
4π 𝑎3 2𝑚3/2 𝐸1/2 dE
Z (E) dE =
h3 𝑎3
4π
Z (E) dE = (2m)3/2 E 1/2 dE ...(13)
h3
This is the expression for the density of states in energy between E and E + dE. It is used to
calculate carrier concentration in metals and semiconductors.
3) Write short notes on the following:
(i) Fermi-Dirac distribution
(ii) Fermi energy at T =0K and T> 0K
(iii) Significance of fermi energy (Apr/May’22)
FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS
Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin like electrons.
They are known as Fermi particles or Fermions. Fermi –Dirac distribution function F(E)
represents the probability of an electron occupying for a given energy level at absolute
temperature.
1
𝐹 (𝐸 ) =
1 + 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
Where EF – Fermi energy, k – Boltzman Constant, T – Temperature.
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 12
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION

The dependence of Fermi distribution function on temperature and its effect on the
occupancy of energy level is shown in Fig. 1.5 (a) and (b).
Case (i) Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0 K
When T = 0 K and E < EF then applying the values in the expression, we have
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(E−EF)/kT
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(−ve/0)
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e-∞
= 1/ 1+0
F(E) = 1
Thus, at T = 0 K, there is 100% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy levels below
Fermi energy level ie., all the energy levels are occupied by the electrons.

Fig. 1.5 Variation of Fermi distribution function with E at different temperatures

Case (ii) Probability of occupation for E > EF at T = 0 K
When T = 0 K and E > EF, then applying the values in the expression F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(E−EF)/kT
we have
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(+ve/0)
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e-∞
= 1/1+∞
= 1/∞ = 0
F(E) = 0
Thus, there is 0% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy level above Fermi energy
level i.e. all the energy levels above Fermi energy level are not occupied by the electrons.
From the above two cases, at T = 0 K the variation of F (E) for different energy values
become a step function as shown in Fig 1.5 (a).
Case (iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 13

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

At ordinary temperature, the value of the probability function starts reducing from 1 for
energy values E slightly less than E F, With the increase of temperature, i.e., T > 0 K, Fermi
function F (E) varies with E as shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).
At any temperature other than 0 K and E = E F
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e0
F(E) = 1 / 1+ 1
= 1/2 = 0.5
= 50%
Hence, there is 50% chance for the electrons to occupy Fermi energy level i.e., the value of F
(E) becomes 1/2 at E = EF
This result is used to define Fermi energy level.
Fermi energy level
 It is the energy level at any finite temperature above 0 K at which the probability of
electron occupation is 1/2 or 50%.
 It is also the energy level of maximum energy of wore the filled states at 0 K.
Further for E > EF, the probability value falls off rapidly to zero (Fig 1.5 (b)).
4) (i) What is meant by effective mass of an electron? Derive an expression for the
effective mass of an electron? (Apr/May’24)
EFFECTIVE MASS OF ELECTRON:
The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential is called
effective mass of an electron. It is denoted by m*
Explanation:
When an electron is accelerated by an electrical magnetic field in a periodic potential,
the mass of the electron is not a constant. But it varies with respect to the field applied. This
varying mass is called effective mass
Derivation of effective mass of electron:
Consider a crystal subjected to an electric field of intensity 'E'. Due to this applied
field, the electron gains a velocity which can be described by a wave vector k. According to
wave mechanics, a particle moving with a velocity v is equivalent to a wave packet moving
with a group velocity vg.
Group velocity with which the electron can travel
𝑑ω
vg = …(1)
𝑑𝑘
where ω angular frequency of the electron
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 14
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

k → wave vector
We know that E = hv
ℎω
E=
2π
E=ℏω
E
ω= …(2)
ℏ
Substituting (2) in (1),
d 𝐸
vg =
dk ℏ
1 𝑑𝐸
vg = ( ) ...(3)
ℏ 𝑑𝑘
The acceleration 'a' experienced by the electron is given by
dvg
a=
dt
d 1 dE
= [ ( )]
dt ℏ dk
1 d2 E dk
= ( ) ...(4)
ℏ dk2 dt
Momentum (p) of an electron inside the crystal.
h
p=
λ
ℎ 2π
=
2π λ
p=ℏk …(5)
Differentiating the equation (5) with respect to ‘t’
dp dk
=ℏ
dt dt
dk
F=ℏ
dt
dk F
= …(6)
dt ℏ
Substituting equation (6) in (4)
1 d2 E F
a= ( )
ℏ dk2 ℏ
1 d2 E
= ( )F
ℏ2 dk2

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 15

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)
2
ℏ
F=[ 2 ]a ....(7)
(d 2E )
dk
When an electrical field is applied, acceleration of the electron due to this field
𝑒𝐸 𝐹
a= =
𝑚∗ 𝑚∗
F = m* a
Comparing the equations (7) and (8), we have
2
ℏ
m* a = [ 2 ]a
(d 2E )
dk
2
ℏ
m* = [ 2 ]
(d 2E )
dk
The above equation indicates that the effective mass of an electron is not a constant, but
d2 E
depends on the value of
dk2
Special cases:
d2 E
case (i) if is positive, then m* is also positive.
dk2
d2 E
case (ii) if is negative, then m* is also negative.
dk2
d2 E
case (iii) if is more, then the electrons behave as light particle.
dk2
d2 E
case (iv) if is very small, then the electrons behave as heavy particle.
dk2
Variation of m* with k:
Fig. 1.6 shows the variation of m* with k. Near k = 0, the effective mass approaches
m. As the value of k increases, m* increases reaching its maximum value at the point of
inflection on the E - k curve. Above the point of inflection, m* is negative and as ‘k’ tends to
π/a, it decreases to a small negative value.

Fig 1.6 Effective mass as a function of k

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 16

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

(ii) Write a short note on Fermi-Dirac distribution. (Apr/May’24)

FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION
Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin like electrons.
They are known as Fermi particles or Fermions. Fermi –Dirac distribution function F(E)
represents the probability of an electron occupying for a given energy level at absolute
temperature.
1
𝐹 (𝐸 ) =
1 + 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
Where EF – Fermi energy, k – Boltzman Constant, T – Temperature.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION
The dependence of Fermi distribution function on temperature and its effect on the
occupancy of energy level is shown in Fig. 1.7 (a) and (b).
Case (i) Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0 K
When T = 0 K and E < EF then applying the values in the expression, we have
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(E−EF)/kT
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(−ve/0)
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e-∞
= 1/ 1+0
F(E) = 1
Thus, at T = 0 K, there is 100% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy levels below
Fermi energy level ie., all the energy levels are occupied by the electrons.

Fig. 1.7 Variation of Fermi distribution function with E at different temperatures

Case (ii) Probability of occupation for E > EF at T = 0 K
When T = 0 K and E > EF, then applying the values in the expression F(E) = 1 / 1+
e(E−EF)/kT we have
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e(+ve/0)
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e-∞
= 1/1+∞
= 1/∞ = 0
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 17
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

F(E) = 0
Thus, there is 0% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy level above Fermi energy
level i.e. all the energy levels above Fermi energy level are not occupied by the electrons.
From the above two cases, at T = 0 K the variation of F (E) for different energy values
become a step function as shown in Fig 1.7 (a).
Case (iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature
At ordinary temperature, the value of the probability function starts reducing from 1
for energy values E slightly less than E F, With the increase of temperature, i.e., T > 0 K, Fermi
function F (E) varies with E as shown in Fig. 1.7 (b).
At any temperature other than 0 K and E = E F
F(E) = 1 / 1+ e0
F(E) = 1 / 1+ 1
= 1/2 = 0.5
= 50%
Hence, there is 50% chance for the electrons to occupy Fermi energy level i.e., the value of F
(E) becomes 1/2 at E = EF
This result is used to define Fermi energy level.
5) Describe the classical free electron theory to obtain an expression for electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivity and deduce Lorentz number.
(Apr/May’23)
Expression For Electrical Conductivity of a Metal
When an electric field E is applied to an electron of charge ‘e' in a metal rod, the
electron moves in opposite direction to the applied field with a velocity v d (Fig. 1.8). This
velocity is known as drift velocity.

Fig. 1.8 Movement of free electrons in a metal rod

Force experienced by the electron F = e E …(1)
This force accelerates the electron and hence, it gains acceleration 'a',

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 18

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

From, Newton's second law of motion, the force on the electron

F = Mass of the electron (m) × acceleration (a)
F = ma ...(2)
From the equation (1) and (2), we have
ma = eE
a = eE / m ...(3)
From equation (3), it is found that the electron should be accelerated continuously due to the
applied electric field. But the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core and other
free electrons. Hence it loses kinetic energy and velocity. Thus, after each collision, the
velocity of electron increases until the next collision takes place.
Average drift velocity of electron is = vd
If τc is collision time, then acceleration.
α = vd / τ
νd = ατ ....(4)
Substituting the equation (3) in (4)
Vd = (eE / m) τ
vd = (e τ / m) E ....(5)
But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given as
J = nevd ....(6)
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6), we have
J = ne ((e τ / m) E)
J/E = ne2τ / m ...(7)
According to Ohm's law, current density (J) is expressed as
J = σ E or σ = J / E ...(8)
On comparing the equation (7) and (8), we have
Electrical conductivity σ = ne2 τ / m ...(9)
The equation (9) represents electrical conductivity of the metal
Thermal Conductivity (K):
We know that the amount of heat conducted between the two ends of a metal rod.
𝑑𝑇
Q = KA t
𝑑𝑥
𝑄
Thermal conductivity K = 𝑑𝑇 t
𝐴 (𝑑𝑥)

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 19

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

It is defined as the amount of heat conducted per unit time through the material having unit
area of cross-section per unit temperature gradient.
If area of cross section A is '1'm2 time of flow of heat t is 1 second, then
𝑄
K= 𝑑𝑇
(𝑑𝑥)

𝑑𝑇
Also, Q = K ( )
𝑑𝑥
Q - Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross-sectional area.
𝑑𝑇
( )- Temperature gradient.
𝑑𝑥
Expression for Thermal Conductivity of a Metal:
Consider two cross-sections A and B of a metal rod separated by a distance λ. Let A be
at a high temperature (T) and B at a low temperature (T - dT).
Now, heat flows from A to B by the free electrons (Fig. 1.9)

Fig 1.9. Heat conduction in a metal rod

Conduction electron per unit volume = n
Average velocity of the electrons = v
During the movement of the electrons in the metal rod, the elastic collision takes place.
Hence, the electrons near A lose their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic
energy.
3
At A, average kinetic energy of an electron = ( ) kT ...(1)
2
where k - Boltzmann's constant
T- Temperature at A.
3
At B, average kinetic energy of the electron = ( ) k (T- dT) …(2)
2
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 20
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B

3 3
=( ) kT - ( ) k (T- dT)
2 2
3 3 3 3
=( ) kT - ( ) kT + ( ) kdT = ( ) kdT …(3)
2 2 2 2
1
Number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time from A to B = ( ) nv ....(4)
6
The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in unit time
1 3
=( ) nv × ( ) kdT
6 2
1
=( )nvkdT …(5)
4
Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per unit area per unit time
1
=-( )nvkdT …(6)
4
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time
1 1
Q=( )nvkdT – (− )nvkdT
4 4
1 1
Q=( )nvkdT + ( )nvkdT
4 4
1 1
Q=( ) + ( ) nvkdT
4 4
1
Q=( ) nvkdT ...(7)
2
But, from the definition of thermal conductivity, the amount of heat conducted per unit area
per unit time
Q = K dT/ λ
1
( ) nvkdT = K dT/ λ
2
1
K=( )nvkλ …(8)
2
We know that for the metals
relaxation time (τ) = collision time (τc)
τ = τc = λ/v
τv = λ …(9)
substituting the equation (9) in the equation (8), we have

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 21

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

1
K=( )nvkτv
2
1
K=( ) n v2 k τ …(10)
2
The equation (10) is the expression for the thermal conductivity of a metal.
Wiedemann - Franz Law:
Statement:
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical conductivity (σ) is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals at a given
temperature.
K/ σ ∝ T
K/ σ = LT
where L is a proportionality constant.
It is known as Lorentz number. Its value is 1.12 × 10-8 WΩK-2.
6) What are the postulates of free electron theory? Derive an expression for electrical
conductivity based on free electron theory.
(Apr/May’24)
Postulates of free electron theory
 In the absence of electric field
The free electrons in the metals moves freely in the boundaries of the metal, similar to the gas
molecules moving in a vessel. (Fig. 1.10). The forces between the conduction electrons and
the ion core are neglected and the total energy of the electron is assumed to be purely kinetic
energy (potential energy is zero).

Fig. 1.10 Fig. 1.11

The free electrons move randomly in all directions. The free electrons collide with each other
and also with the lattice Elastically, without any loss in the energy.
 In the presence of electric field

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 22

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

The free electron moves in the direction opposite to that of the field direction as shown in Fig.
1.11. Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they obey classical kinetic theory of
gases and the electron velocities in the metal obey the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.
Expression For Electrical Conductivity of a Metal
When an electric field E is applied to an electron of charge ‘e' in a metal rod, the
electron moves in opposite direction to the applied field with a velocity vd (Fig. 1.12). This
velocity is known as drift velocity.

Fig. 1.12 Movement of free electrons in a metal rod

Force experienced by the electron F = e E …(1)
This force accelerates the electron and hence, it gains acceleration 'a',
From, Newton's second law of motion, the force on the electron
F = Mass of the electron (m) × acceleration (a)
F = ma ...(2)
From the equation (1) and (2), we have
ma = eE
a = eE / m ...(3)
From equation (3), it is found that the electron should be accelerated continuously due to the
applied electric field. But the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core and other
free electrons. Hence it loses kinetic energy and velocity. Thus, after each collision, the
velocity of electron increases until the next collision takes place.
Average drift velocity of electron is = vd
If τc is collision time, then acceleration.
α = vd / τ
νd = ατ ....(4)
Substituting the equation (3) in (4)
Vd = (eE / m) τ

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 23

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

vd = (e τ / m) E ....(5)
But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given as
J = nevd ....(6)
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6), we have
J = ne ((e τ / m) E)
J/E = ne2τ / m ...(7)
According to Ohm's law, current density (J) is expressed as
J = σ E or σ = J / E ...(8)
On comparing the equation (7) and (8), we have
Electrical conductivity σ = ne2 τ / m ...(9)
The equation (9) represents electrical conductivity of the metal
7) (i) Explain in detail about tight binding approximation.
(Nov/Dec’23)
Tight binding approximation:
In solid, ionic cores at fixed lattice locations and free electron gas enveloping these
ionic cores. In other words, it is assumed that the solid already exists. The ionic cores are
'tightly bound' to their lattice locations. The electrons are 'free' to run through the extent of the
solid. This is called the 'Free electron approximation'. There is another approach to modelling
materials which starts from opposite position. In this approach, the atoms are independent to
begin with and they are brought together to build the solid. The electrons are bound to their
respective individual atoms to begin with. In this case the atoms are free to begin with while
the electrons are tightly bound to the atom.
 In view of the electronic properties of the materials, this approach is referred to as the
‘Tight binding approximation' - highlighting the status of the electrons at the start of
the model.
 Fig 1.13 shows how the tight binding approximation builds the band structure of the
solid.

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 24

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

Fig. 1.13 Tight binding approximation to explain the properties of solids

 When the atoms are far apart, all the bound electrons associated with each atom, have
fixed energy levels.
 Assuming that building the solid starts using atoms of the same element. Thus, the
energy levels occupied by the respective electrons in each atom will be identical.
 As we bring the atoms close to each other to form the solid, the electrons will still
maintain their original energy levels as long as the interatomic separation is large.
 When the atoms get close enough, the outer shell electrons begin to overlap with each
other.
 The energy levels of these outer shell electrons are forced to split into energy levels
above and below the energy level of these electrons when they belong to individual
atoms.
 The splitting of energy levels occurs because electrons obey the Pauli's exclusio n
principle.
 Initially only the outer shell electrons overlap, therefore only their levels split. But
inner shell electrons still maintain their energy levels like individual atom.
 If the interatomic separation keeps decreasing even further, progressively more of the
inner shell electron levels will overlap and hence also split.
 At each energy level, the level will split to enough new energy levels (band) so as to
accommodate the electrons of all the atoms in the solid taken together.
 For example, if hundred atoms come together, and there is one electron in the outer
shell, the solid will split the energy level to a hundred energy levels. Thus, the hundred
outer shell electrons are filled corresponding to the combined solid.
 In view of the starting points, the free electron approximation lends itself more easily
to the treatment of metallic system. The tight binding approximation is typically more
consistent with the state of the material in the case of insulators, so it is better suited
for modelling insulators.

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 25

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

(ii) What is effective mass of an electron? Derive an expression for the effective mass of
an electron moving in a periodic potential.
(Nov/Dec’23)
EFFECTIVE MASS OF ELECTRON
The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential is called
effective mass of an electron. It is denoted by m*

Explanation:
When an electron is accelerated by an electrical magnetic field in a periodic potential,
the mass of the electron is not a constant. But it varies with respect to the field applied. This
varying mass is called effective mass
Derivation of effective mass of electron:
Consider a crystal subjected to an electric field of intensity 'E'. Due to this applied
field, the electron gains a velocity which can be described by a wave vector k. According to
wave mechanics, a particle moving with a velocity v is equivalent to a wave packet moving
with a group velocity vg.
Group velocity with which the electron can travel
𝑑ω
vg = …(1)
𝑑𝑘
where ω angular frequency of the electron
k → wave vector
We know that E = hv
ℎω
E=
2π
E=ℏω
E
ω= …(2)
ℏ
Substituting (2) in (1),
d 𝐸
vg =
dk ℏ
1 𝑑𝐸
vg = ( ) ...(3)
ℏ 𝑑𝑘
The acceleration 'a' experienced by the electron is given by
dvg
a=
dt

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 26

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

d 1 dE
= [ ( )]
dt ℏ dk
1 d2 E dk
= ( ) ...(4)
ℏ dk2 dt
Momentum (p) of an electron inside the crystal.
h
p=
λ
ℎ 2π
=
2π λ
p=ℏk …(5)
Differentiating the equation (5) with respect to ‘t’
dp dk
=ℏ
dt dt
dk
F=ℏ
dt
dk F
= …(6)
dt ℏ
Substituting equation (6) in (4)
1 d2 E F
a= ( )
ℏ dk2 ℏ
1 d2 E
= ( )F
ℏ2 dk2
2
ℏ
F=[ 2 ]a ....(7)
(d 2E )
dk
When an electrical field is applied, acceleration of the electron due to this field
𝑒𝐸 𝐹
a= ∗=
𝑚 𝑚∗
F = m* a
Comparing the equations (7) and (8), we have
2
ℏ
m* a = [ 2 ]a
(d 2E )
dk
2
ℏ
m* = [ 2 ]
(d 2E )
dk

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 27

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

The above equation indicates that the effective mass of an electron is not a constant, but
d2 E
depends on the value of
dk2

Special cases:
d2 E
case (i) if is positive, then m* is also positive.
dk2
d2 E
case (ii) if is negative, then m* is also negative.
dk2
d2 E
case (iii) if is more, then the electrons behave as light particle.
dk2
d2 E
case (iv) if is very small, then the electrons behave as heavy particle.
dk2
Variation of m* with k:
Fig. 1.14 shows the variation of m* with k. Near k = 0, the effective mass approaches
m. As the value of k increases, m* increases reaching its maximum value at the point of
inflection on the E - k curve. Above the point of inflection, m* is negative and as ‘k’ tends to
π/a, it decreases to a small negative value.

Fig 1.14 Effective mass as a function of k

8) Discuss the classical free electron theory in detail. What are the success and failures of
this theory?
(Nov/Dec’19)
CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON (CFE) THEORY OF METALS
The classical free electron theory of metals was proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900 to
explain the electrical conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by H. A. Lorentz
in the year 1909. We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with positively charged

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 28

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

protons surrounded by the electrons of negative charge. The electrons in the inner shells are
called core electrons and those in the outermost shell are called valence electrons (Fig.1.15).

Fig. 1.16
Fig. 1.15 Atom
In a metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach from the orbit, then they move
freely throughout the metal. These electrons are known as free or conduction electrons.
Postulates of classical free electron theory
 According to this theory, a metal consists of very large number of free electrons. These
electrons move freely throughout the volume of the metal. The movement of the free
electrons is mainly responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.
 Drude assumed that the free electrons in the metal form an electron gas. They move
randomly in all possible directions just like the gas molecules move in a container. The
arrangement of atoms in a metal is viewed as an array of atoms (ions) surrounded by a
gas of free electrons. Here, the mutual repulsion between the electrons is neglected.
(Fig. 1.16)
 In absence of an electrical field, the free electrons (electron gas) move in all directions
in a random manner.
 They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core during the motion. This
collision is known as elastic collision (Fig 1.17). As the motion is random, the
resultant velocity in any particular direction is zero.

Fig. 1.17 Random motion of free electrons Fig. 1.18 Movement of free electrons
with applied electrical field
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 29
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

 When the electrical field is applied the electrons get some amount of energy. These
electrons begin to move towards the positive potential (in opposite direction to the
applied electrical field). They continue to collide with positive ion cores fixed in the
lattice. As a result, the free electrons acquire a constant average velocity known as
drift velocity (Fig. 1.18).
 The velocity and the energy distribution of free electrons are governed by classical
Maxwell distribution function.
 Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they obey the laws of kinetic
theory of gases. Therefore, the free electrons are assigned with mean free path, mean
collision time and average velocity.
Drift velocity (vd)
It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons of a metal in a particular
direction by the application of an electrical field. It is expressed as
vd = λ / τc
where λ - mean free path
τc - collision time.
Success of classical free electron theory
 It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
 It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
 It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.
 It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
Failures of classical free electron theory
 Classical theory states that all the free electrons absorb the supplied energy. But, the
quantum theory states that only a few electrons absorb the supplied energy.
 The Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or insulators cannot be explained by this
theory.
 It does not explain, The photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, Black body radiation,
Paramagnetism and Ferromagnetism.

9) Derive the energy value of a particle in a three-dimensional box.

(Apr/May’19)
PARTICLE IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOX

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 30

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

 Let us consider a particle of mass m enclosed in a 3-dimensional rectangular potential

box of lengths a,b,c along X, Y, Z axis (Fig.1.19)

Fig.1.19. Particle in a 3-dimensional box

 In a 3-dimensional box, the particle can move in any direction.
 There is no force acting on the particle inside box.
 The potential energy of the particle inside the box is zero and outside the box is
infinity that is
0 < x < a,
0 < y < b,
0 < z < c.
The potential energy V(x,y,z) = 0, and outside the box V(x,y,z) = ∞.
Wave equation of the particle
For the motion of the particle inside the box, Schrodinger time-independent wave
equation for free particle is
2𝑚
𝛻 2𝜓 + 𝐸𝜓 = 0 …(1)
ħ2
Total energy of the particle
E = Ex+ Ey+ Ez …(2)
For one dimensional box of width ‘a’, the energy of particle is
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2
E- Energy
n - quantum number
h - planck’s constant
a - width of the box
m - mass of the particle
For three-dimensional box, we have

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 31

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)
2 ℎ2
𝑛𝑥2 ℎ2 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧2 ℎ2
i.e., 𝐸𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = 2
+ 2
+ …(3)
8𝑚𝑎 8𝑚𝑏 8𝑚𝑐 2
For cubical box,
a=b=c
a2 = b2 =c2
h2
Enx ny nz = [n2x + n2y + n2z ] ------- (5)
8ma2
Where
nx = 1,2,3, …….
ny = 1,2,3,…….
nz = 1,2,3,……..
Eigen function
For one dimensional box, normalized wave function for a particle in a box

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑥 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑎

The corresponding normalised wave function is

2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝜓𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ….(7)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

2 2 2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛𝑥𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = √ × × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

8 nx πx ny πy nz πz
ψnxny nz = √ sin sin sin ------ (8)
abc a b c

From the equations (5) and (8), we understand that several combinations of the three quantum
numbers (𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) lead to different energy eigen value and eigen functions.
DEGENERATE STATES
Suppose a state has quantum numbers, 𝑛𝑥 = 1, 𝑛𝑦 = 1, 𝑛𝑧 = 2 then,
n2x + n2y + n2z = 6
Similarly for a combination 𝑛𝑥 = 1, 𝑛𝑦 = 2, 𝑛𝑧 = 1 and 𝑛𝑥 = 2, 𝑛𝑦 = 1, 𝑛𝑧 = 1
We have n2x + n2y + n2z = 6
6h2
E112 = E121 = E211 =
8ma2
The corresponding wave function are written as

8 πx πy 2πz
ψ112 = √
3
sin sin sin
a a a a
PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 32
8 πx 2πy πz
ψ121 = √ 3 sin sin sin
a a a a

8 2πx πy πz
ψ211 = √ 3 sin sin sin
a a a a
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

10) (i) State the assumption of the classical free electron model.
(May/Jun’20)
CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON (CFE) THEORY OF METALS
The classical free electron theory of metals was proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900 to
explain the electrical conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by H. A. Lorentz
in the year 1909. We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with positively charged
protons surrounded by the electrons of negative charge. The electrons in the inner shells are
called core electrons and those in the outermost shell are called valence electrons (Fig.1.15).

Fig. 1.16
Fig. 1.15 Atom
In a metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach from the orbit, then they move
freely throughout the metal. These electrons are known as free or conduction electrons.

Postulates of classical free electron theory

 According to this theory, a metal consists of very large number of free electrons. These
electrons move freely throughout the volume of the metal. The movement of the free
electrons is mainly responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.
 Drude assumed that the free electrons in the metal form an electron gas. They move
randomly in all possible directions just like the gas molecules move in a container. The
arrangement of atoms in a metal is viewed as an array of atoms (ions) surrounded by a
gas of free electrons. Here, the mutual repulsion between the electrons is neglected.
(Fig. 1.16)
 In absence of an electrical field, the free electrons (electron gas) move in all directions
in a random manner.
 They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core during the motion. This
collision is known as elastic collision (Fig 1.17). As the motion is random, the
resultant velocity in any particular direction is zero.

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 33

9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

Fig. 1.17 Random motion of free electrons Fig. 1.18 Movement of free electrons
with applied electrical field
 When the electrical field is applied the electrons get some amount of energy. These
electrons begin to move towards the positive potential (in opposite direction to the
applied electrical field). They continue to collide with positive ion cores fixed in the
lattice. As a result, the free electrons acquire a constant average velocity known as
drift velocity (Fig. 1.18).
 The velocity and the energy distribution of free electrons are governed by classical
Maxwell distribution function.
 Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they obey the laws of kinetic
theory of gases. Therefore, the free electrons are assigned with mean free path, mean
collision time and average velocity.

(ii) Obtain an expression for the electrical conductivity based on free electron theory.

(May/Jun’20)
Expression For Electrical Conductivity of a Metal
When an electric field E is applied to an electron of charge ‘e' in a metal rod, the
electron moves in opposite direction to the applied field with a velocity v d (Fig. 1.19). This
velocity is known as drift velocity.

Fig. 1.19 Movement of free electrons in a metal rod

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 34
9111 - SRM MCET S&H (Physics)

Force experienced by the electron F = e E …(1)

This force accelerates the electron and hence, it gains acceleration 'a',
From, Newton's second law of motion, the force on the electron
F = Mass of the electron (m) × acceleration (a)
F = ma ...(2)
From the equation (1) and (2), we have
ma = eE
a = eE / m ...(3)
From equation (3), it is found that the electron should be accelerated continuously due to the
applied electric field. But the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core and other
free electrons. Hence it loses kinetic energy and velocity. Thus, after each collision, the
velocity of electron increases until the next collision takes place.
Average drift velocity of electron is = vd
If τc is collision time, then acceleration.
α = vd / τ
νd = ατ ....(4)
Substituting the equation (3) in (4)
Vd = (eE / m) τ
vd = (e τ / m) E ....(5)
But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given as
J = nevd ....(6)
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6), we have
J = ne ((e τ / m) E)
J/E = ne2τ / m ...(7)
According to Ohm's law, current density (J) is expressed as
J = σ E or σ = J / E ...(8)
On comparing the equation (7) and (8), we have
Electrical conductivity σ = ne2 τ / m ...(9)
The equation (9) represents electrical conductivity of the metal.

PH 3256 Physics for Information Science P a g e | 35