Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

The weed problem in paddy fields is one of the main factors reducing the

crop yield in rice production because they use part of the resources that are

essential for rice growth. Weed management in paddy fields has significant

seasonality, short weeding period, and large amount of labor, which brings more

challenges (Zhu et al., 2020). Consequently, weed control is perceived to be an

important aspect of research in paddy field management. Weed control methods

include chemical, mechanical, biological, thermal, electric, and cultural

approaches (Zeng et al., 2021). Due to the advantages of economy and labor

savings, chemical weed control is a frequently used and efficient method, but it

has high risk of herbicides contamination. The evolution of herbicide-resistance

weeds will decrease the efficacy of chemical weed control, and it may cause

adverse effects on crop growth and yield as well. With the accumulation of layers

in the food chain, there could be herbicide residues in human bodies. Therefore,

many countries require to reduce their dependence on herbicides, especially the

European Union, which promotes the adoption of mechanical weed control

strategies (Melander et al., 2015).

2.2 Solar Powered Agricultural Machinery

Solar energy has been widely explored in agriculture due to its sustainability

and cost-effectiveness. According to Bhattacharya & Kumar (2020), solar-powered

equipment, reducing carbon emissions and operational costs. Research by Singh

et al. (2021) highlights the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) systems in powering farm

machinery, demonstrating their feasibility in remote areas with limited access to

electricity.

2.3 Weeding Mechanisms in Agricultural Machinery

Inter-row weeds, which are those growing between the crop rows, are

relatively easily controlled by mechanical means. Inter-row cultivation using tines

with hoe blades is the most common method. Unfortunately, the effect is often sub-

optimal within the crop rows, because most weeders are non-selective (the

weeding tool itself is unable to distinguish between crop and weed plants). The

efficacy of the operation often depends on factors, such as plant height and rooting

depth. In general, if there is enough difference between crop- and weed plants (i.e.

large plants and small weeds), non-selective weed control can perform well. The

aggressiveness of the operation needs to be considered, however. The more

aggressive the operation, the more weed control, but often at the risk of damaging

crop plants. Therefore, not all weeds can be mechanically controlled, particularly

in the crop rows, if significant crop yield reductions are to be avoided. In practice,

non-chemical weed control strategies for row crops may consist of the following:

1. Preventative and cultural methods before crop sowing to lower the density

of the weeds in the crop rows during the cropping season (Melander et al.,

2005).
 2. Physical control (e.g. harrowing, hoeing, flaming) prior to crop emergence

or planting (Table 2, Leblanc & Cloutier, 1996; Ascard, 1995).

3. Provided it is economically feasible, the crop may be transplanted instead

of sown, which may result in larger crop plants compared with the weeds.

This size difference between crop and weeds will facilitate the mechanical

weeding operations and will decrease the period of time that there is an

open crop canopy.

4. Providing sufficient row distance, so inter-row hoeing can take place.

5. Ensuring crop plants are well anchored, so they can resist mechanical

impact to some extent, which allows for some post-emergence mechanical

control of small weed plants in the crop rows.

6. Hoeing can be supplemented by ridging to cover small intra-row weeds

provided there is sufficient crop height.

7. Some hand labour normally required to remove intra-row weeds that have

escaped mechanical and other physical weed control methods.

2.4 Cultivation Techniques and Soil Health

Cropping systems, including crop diversification, crop rotation and

intercropping, and related agronomic practices used in agriculture impact soil

health and quality from various spatial and temporal aspects (Vukicevich et al.,

2016). Cropping systems were initially designed to maximize yield from agro-

systems, but modern agriculture has become increasingly concerned about the

environmental sustainability of cropping systems (Fargione et al., 2018). The goal

of soil health maintenance is to ensure long-term stable high productivity and

evaluation standards, namely nutrient cycling, water relations, biodiversity and

habitat, filtering and buffering, and physical stability and support (Hatfield et al.,

2017). Fig. 1 illustrates an example of how an optimized cropping system

increases soil health, relative to monoculture.

It is essential to design initiatives and implement actions to protect and

restore soil health in agriculture. However, the concept of soil health is not easy to

define or grasp; consequently, it has been a topic of intense debate and

controversy (Sojka and Upchurch, 1999; Sojka et al., 2003). A commonly used

definition of ‘soil health’ or ‘soil quality’ is “the continued capacity of soil to function

as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain

biological productivity, promote the quality of air and water environments, and

maintain plant, animal and human health” (Doran and Parkin, 1996; Doran and

Zeiss, 2000). However, Pankhurst et al. (1997) suggested using ‘soil quality’ when

referring to the “soil’s capacity to meet defined human needs” (e.g., to support a

particular crop), and ‘soil health’ when speaking about the “soil’s continued

capacity to maintain its functions.” Interestingly, ‘health’ in the context of soil

highlights the vital importance of the living component of soils, frequently

characterized by overwhelming biodiversity. Here, it must be stated that using

‘health’ when referring to soils is based on analogy rather than homology, as soil

is not a single living organism.

Tractors are agricultural vehicles that are used to mechanize several farm

operations by working with various types of implements. Besides conventional

lawn mowing, landscape maintenance, and spreading fertilizers and pesticides,

modern tractors are nowadays used for plowing, planting, reaping, and harvesting

(Sunusi et al., 2020). Tractors with diversity in design and application are aimed to

perform special tasks ranging from small tractors with 15 hp useable in small

vegetable farms up to 40. Farm machinery automation can cause a major shift in

the current agro-industry, facilitating farm practices, increasing precision through

various operations, minimizing human interventions besides decreasing the

downtime, and consequently enhancing the overall productivity. Moreover, since

the human presence in the field decreases, health risk issues that are related to

machine-human interactions become smaller, and the labor operation and

maintenance costs decline as the economic impacts (Gorjian et al., 2021).

2.6 Challenges and Future Aspects

Despite advancements, challenges such as initial costs, battery storage

limitations, and efficiency of solar panels remain. Research by Ali & Gupta (2022)

suggests that improvements in energy storage and efficiency of PV panels can

enhance machine performance. Future trends in agricultural automation point

toward the integration of IoT and AI for real-time monitoring and adaptive weed

control.
2.7 Conclusion

The reviewed literature highlights the benefits and feasibility of solar-

powered weeding and cultivation machines in modern agriculture. With ongoing

technological advancements, these machines have the potential to revolutionize

sustainable farming practices by reducing environmental impact and improving

efficiency. Future research should focus on optimizing solar energy utilization,

enhancing automation, and developing cost-effective solutions for widespread

adoption.