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Volcanoes
Objectives q Explain where and why volcanoes form
q Describe and explain the shape and structure of different types of volcanoes:
• Shield, acid (dome) and composite volcanoes.
q Understand the factors affecting the impacts of volcanoes.
q Positive and negative impact of volcanic activities.

INTRODUCTION
• Earth’s mantle consists of _____________. When plates move, some of this magma reaches the surface
of the Earth’s crust as _____________ to form landforms, including volcanoes.
• A volcano is a landform created by the successive layers of cooled and solidified lava that have erupted
from a vent.

DISTRIBUTION
• Most of the world’s active volcanoes are located at plate boundaries. Many of them are located around
the Pacific Ocean.
• Due to the frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the Pacific Ocean, this area is known as the
____________________________________.

Figure 2(a): Distribution of the world’s active volcanoes.

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FORMATION
• Volcanoes are mainly formed along convergent or divergent plate boundaries. When plates collide or pull
apart, their movement exerts pressure on the mantle. This pressure forces the magma in the mantle to
rise upwards. When the pressure increases and becomes too high, the magma forces its way out to the
Earth’s surface as lava in a volcanic _____________.

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

(i) (i)

(li) (li)

(iii)

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
• Volcanoes can be classified into three (3) types based in their shapes:-
• _____________ (or lava dome)
• Shield (or _____________ )
• _____________ (or stratovolcano)
• The different shape of volcanoes are different because they eject different types of lava.

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Acid volcano Shield Composite volcano
(or lava dome) (or basic volcano) (or stratovolcano)

Shape of
volcano

Slope of
volcano

Type of lava

Nature of lava

Type of eruption

Example

Acid volcano Composite volcano

Figure 2(b): The structure of different

Shield volcano types of volcanoes.

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STRUCTURE OF VOLCANOES

(i) Crater

(ii) Vent

(iii) Secondary cone / Parasitic cone

(iv) Conduit / Pipe

(v) Crater

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE IMPACT OF VOLCANO:
1. Types of Lava and volcanic eruption
In these pages, when we talk
2. Types of volcanic materials about impact of volcano, we are
talking about the eruption
3. Geographical location
i.e. the eruption is violent or the
4. Technology eruption is ‘effusive’

(1) Types of Lava and volcanic eruption

• There are two types of lava: (i) _____________________ and (ii) _____________________

(i) Acid Lava (ii)

Silica content and

viscosity

Explanation

Types of volcanoes

Types of eruptions

Eruption characteristic

Figure 2( c ): The shapes of volcanoes are different because of different type of lava that they ejected

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(2) Types of volcanic materials
Volcanic material range in size, from fine ash to large volcanic bombs. The materials that are ejected
into the atmosphere can cause much destruction to property when they rain down on human
settlements.

Figure 2(d): Types of volcanic materials

(i) Lava Flows

a. A lava flow occurs when a volcano erupts and pours
out a large amount of lava onto the surrounding
areas.
b. These lava flows can have greatly negative impact
on property and the environment as they destroyed
everything in their path.

(ii) Ash
a. Ash is the smallest and finest fragments of lava or
rock that are ejected by volcanic eruptions. It is made
up of particles that are less than 2 mm in diameter.
b. As it is light, ash can be blown by wind over large
distances and can be very disruptive to people’s
daily activities.

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(iii) Gases
a. Gases trapped in magma are released into the
atmosphere when volcanoes erupt explosively.
Released gases include water vapour, carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
b. Water vapour forms around 70% to 95% of released
gases. This helps to add to the Earth’s water supply.
c. Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, however, can
be dangerous to living things if present in the
atmosphere in large amounts.

(iv) Volcanic Bombs

a. Volcanic bombs are large fragments of volcanic
rocks, usually more than 64 mm in diameter. They
are often semi-solid or partially molten when ejected.

(v) Pyroclastic flows

a. A Pyroclastic flow occurs when volcanic gases mix

with ash and other rock fragments. The flows very
quickly down the slopes of a volcano, at speed of up
to 100 km/h.
b. The temperature of a pyroclastic flow ranges from
200oC to 700oC.

(vi) Lahar
a. A Lahar, or mudslide, occurs when water mixes with
volcanic materials such as ash and other rocks
fragments. This flows very quicky from the slopes of
a volcano.
b. The temperature of a lahar can be either extremely
cold or hot up to a maximum of 100oC. Lahar are
very destructive and bury everything in their path.

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(3) Geographical location
i. Proximity to plate boundaries
a. Volcanoes are mostly located at plate boundaries because they are formed by plate
movement.
b. Countries that are in close proximity to plate boundaries, such as Indonesia and the
Philippines, will experience more impacts from volcanic activity compared to countries
further away from plate boundaries, such as Brunei.
ii. Proximity to human settlements
a. The danger of volcanic eruptions increases if they are located in close proximity to
settlements.
b. Volcanic eruptions have a greater impact in Indonesia and the Philippines because they are
densely populated.

(4) Technology
I. Monitoring
a. The monitoring of volcanic activity involves setting up observatories at active volcanoes,
carrying our field observation, as well as setting up instruments on the volcanoes to measure
volcanic activity.
b. Since volcanic activity is closely related to earthquake movements, seismograph reading may
be used to detect small tremors. Careful watch on the shape of the surface near the crater
may help to detect any swelling before an eruption.

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II. Exclusive zones
c. Scientists use the data they have collected to decide if the level of volcanic activity will present
any danger to people living on or close to the volcano.

III. Early warning system

d. Many volcanic observatories issue are regularly updated on volcanic activities nationwide, to
serve as early warning to people living in the danger zone of active volcanoes.

IV. Evacuation
e. In an early warning system, information is quickly passed from the scientist to the emergency
management official and the public. This is important so there will be as much time as possible
for emergency management officials to order an evacuation.

IMPACTS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES

POSITIVE IMPACT IMPACT
(A) POSITIVE
FERTILE SOILS

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• In volcanic region, rising magma may cool and harden

beneath the crust to form rocks such as basalt and
granite that are used for building materials.
2 • Many metallic minerals, including copper, lead, and
zinc as well as precious minerals such as gold, silver
and diamond are found in volcanic rocks mining
industries are often set up around these deposits to
harvest them which creates employment for the
locals.

AVAILABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL AND

DOMESTIC HEATING

Geothermal activity near volcanoes creates features such

as hot springs and geysers.
• Hot springs occurs when the heated groundwater
reaches the Earth’s surface through cracks in the
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Earth’s crust. For example, Japan hot spring, or
‘onsen’.
• A geyser is a boiling underground reservoir just
beneath the earth surface. When the water is
superheated by magma, it gushes its way out through
narrow openings on the Earth’s surface. For example,
Yellowstone National Park in the USA.

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NEGATIVE IMPACT

Lahars are very destructive and bury everything in their path. If it flows through densely populated
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areas such as towns and villages, property and human lives may be lost.

Violent eruptions often release huge amounts of volcanic ash. The ash and poisonous fumes such
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as Sulphur Dioxide may pollute the atmosphere, rivers and lakes.

If carbon dioxide is too concentrated, it can harm vegetation. In addition, air that has more than
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30% carbon dioxide can cause unconsciousness and death in people and animals.

Sulphur dioxide causes air pollution and can contribute to the formation of acid rain. Sulphuric
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acid also destroys the ozone in the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide gas causes skin, eye, nose and
throat irritation in humans. The polluted air makes breathing difficult and causes health problems,
such as asthma and coughs.

Molten lava may be thrown into the atmosphere and fall as volcanic bombs over great distances,
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destroying and burning vegetation and human property in the surrounding areas.

A violent eruption can cause tremors which may trigger landslides, avalanches and mudflows.
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Mudflows may block valleys and bury villages, destroy farmland and marine life in lakes and rivers
and cause severe flooding.

Sometimes the eruption may cause great disturbances on the ocean floor, causing huge waves
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called tsunamis.

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