LECTURE NOTE part 2

BLD 512

Structural Design (Steel) (3 Credit Unit)

for

(BTech. students in Building, Architecture and Civil Engineering)

Asso. Prof. Ezekiel B. Ogunbode MNIOB, R.Bldr., QAA

Department of Building
Federal University of Technology Minna. Niger State.
GRADES AND TYPES OF TIMBER
1. Introduction to Timber in Construction
Timber is one of the oldest building materials used in civil engineering and construction
due to its strength, durability, and availability. It is obtained from trees and classified
based on species, strength, and usage.

Advantages of Timber in Construction

✔ Renewable and Sustainable – Timber is environmentally friendly.

✔ Lightweight and Strong – Good strength-to-weight ratio.
✔ Easy to Work With – Can be cut, shaped, and assembled easily.
✔ Aesthetic Appeal – Used in interior finishes and structural elements.

2. Classification of Timber
Timber can be classified based on the following:

2.1. Classification by Botanical Origin

1. Hardwood – Derived from broad-leaved trees (Angiosperms), e.g., Mahogany,

Oak, Teak.
2. Softwood – Derived from coniferous trees (Gymnosperms), e.g., Pine, Spruce,
Cedar.

2.2. Classification by Mode of Growth

1. Natural Timber – Grown and used directly after seasoning.

2. Engineered Timber – Processed for strength and durability, e.g., Plywood,
Glulam, MDF, LVL.

 What is Plywood?

Plywood is a composite material manufactured from thin layers, or "plies", of wood veneer
that have been stacked and glued together. It is an engineered wood from the family of
manufactured boards, which include plywood, medium-density fibreboard (MDF), oriented
strand board (OSB), and particle board (or chipboard).

All plywoods bind resin and wood fibre sheets (cellulose cells are long, strong and thin) to
form a composite material. The sheets of wood are stacked such that each layer has its grain
set typically (see below) perpendicular to its adjacent layers. This alternation of the grain is
called cross-graining and has several important benefits: it reduces the tendency of wood to
split when nailed at the edges; it reduces thickness swelling and shrinkage, providing
improved dimensional stability; and it makes the strength of the panel consistent across all
directions. There is usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is balanced, that is, the
surface layers have their grains set parallel to one another. This balance reduces warping.
Because plywood is bonded with grains running against one another and with an odd number
of composite parts, it has high stiffness perpendicular to the grain direction of the surface ply.
Smaller, thinner, and lower-quality plywoods may only have their plies (layers) arranged at
right angles to each other. Some better-quality plywood products by design have five plies in
steps of 45 degrees (0, 45, 90, 135, and 180 degrees), giving strength in multiple axes.

 What Is MDF?

MDF (Medium-density fiberboard) is a manufactured product that is composed of pulverized

wood fibers mixed with resins and wax, before being pressed into flat panels under high
temperatures and pressure. It is used as a building material in residential and commercial
buildings and in cabinetry and furniture-making. MDF is available in several different types,
depending on the needs of the job

Beadboard is a type of MDF made with faux tongue-and-groove patterns. It is often used to
make easy, inexpensive wainscotting treatments and other wall paneling effects.

Slatwall is a particular type of MDF panel that has deep-lipped grooves. These panels are
often used for commercial display walls or for special shelving or storage systems.

Moisture-resistant MDF makes use of special resins that make it a good choice in bathrooms,
kitchens, and floors, where high humidity can cause standard MDF to swell.

Fire-retardant MDF is often specified where construction needs to have extra fire resistance.
Most commonly, it is seen in commercial buildings.
Ultralite MDF weighs one third less than standard MDF, so it is popular for use in theater sets
or tradeshow booths, where structures must be periodically assembled and disassembled.

Bendy MDF is processed in a manner that allows the panels to readily curve. Architects often
specify this material to create curved walls and trim.

 What is Glulam?

Glulam is a natural alternative to steel or concrete. Glulam is a natural structural material that
is economical, strong and attractive looking.

By the turn of the last century, German structural design engineer Otto Hetzer presented a
patent described as “a bent structural component of timber for building applications", which
later became known as Glulam.

Glulam is made by gluing together – under pressure and heat – laminates of timber that have
been accurately planed. The resulting product is strong, stable and corrosion proof with
significant advantages over structural steel and concrete.

Glulam is made with wood from Scandinavian sustainable forests. Scandinavian forests are
some of the best managed in the world, where reforestation and environmental considerations
are given high priority. The trees used are usually spruce, though can sometimes be redwood
or Siberian larch.

The manufacture, distribution, and treatment of Glulam all consume less energy than any
other building materials. Glulam is a long-lasting material that’s easy to work with.

Glulam Ltd has the largest stock of Glulam beams in the UK.
What is LVL?
LVL is part of a family of products, structural composite lumber, that are made of dried and
graded wood veneers, strands or flakes that are layered upon one another and bonded together
with a moisture resistant adhesive into large blocks known as billets. Other products in this
group include laminated strand lumber (LSL) and parallel strand lumber (PSL). In the case of
LVL, veneers are bonded together under heat and pressure.
How is LVL made?

LVL is made from rotary-peeled veneers that are bonded together under heat and pressure
into large panels that are cut into range of widths. Phenol-formaldehyde resins provide
waterproof bonds. A diverse range of species can be used to produce LVL—such as Douglas-
fir, larch, pine and spruce—to produce members that are beyond conventional lumber
lengths. Typically, LVL veneers are oriented in the same direction.

What is LVL used for?

LVL is suitable for use as beams, trusses, planks and rafters. When cross-bonded for
increased stiffness it can be used to form wall and floor panels with load-bearing capacity.
While frequently used solely as a concealed structural component of a building, finished
appearance grades are also used.

2.3. Classification by Density

1. Heavy Timber – Density above 800 kg/m³, e.g., Ebony, Mahogany.

2. Medium Timber – Density 600 – 800 kg/m³, e.g., Teak, Oak.
3. Light Timber – Density below 600 kg/m³, e.g., Pine, Cedar.

3. Grades of Timber
3.1. Structural Grading of Timber

Structural grading is used to classify timber based on its strength and defects. There are two
main types:

1. Visual Grading

 Performed manually by inspecting knots, grain, and defects.

 Common grades: Select, Standard, Utility.

2. Machine Grading

 Uses mechanical testing to classify timber strength.

 Assigned stress grades (C16, C24, D30, D40) based on BS 5268 and EN 14081.

3.2. Commercial Grading

1. Select Grade – High-quality timber with minimal defects.

2. Standard Grade – Moderate defects but structurally sound.
3. Utility Grade – Used for temporary structures or formwork.

4. Types of Timber Used in Construction

4.1. Natural Timber Species

Type Examples Uses

Hardwood Oak, Mahogany, Teak Flooring, Furniture, Joinery
Softwood Pine, Cedar, Spruce Roof Trusses, Framing, Panels

4.2. Engineered Timber Products

TYPE DESCRIPTION USES

PLYWOOD Thin wood layers glued Wall panels,
together Roofing
GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER Layers of wood glued under Beams, Columns
(GLULAM) pressure
MEDIUM DENSITY Wood fibers bonded with Furniture, Doors
FIBREBOARD (MDF) resin
LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER Thin wood veneers glued Structural beams,
(LVL) together Rafters

5. Applications of Timber in Building andCivil

Engineering
 Structural Uses: Roof trusses, beams, columns.
 Formwork: Temporary molds for concrete.
 Flooring and Cladding: Decorative and functional.
 Bridges: Timber bridges in rural areas.
 Doors and Windows: Frames and panels.

6. Preservation and Treatment of Timber

 Chemical Treatment: Protects against termites, fungi, and moisture.
 Seasoning: Removes excess moisture, reducing warping.
  Fire Retardants: Improves fire resistance.

Timber is a versatile material with various grades and types suited for different
engineering applications. Proper selection and treatment enhance its strength, durability,
and sustainability.

7. Discussion Questions
1. What is the difference between hardwood and softwood?
2. How is timber grading performed?
3. Why is engineered timber preferred in modern construction?
4. What are the main defects found in timber?
5. How does seasoning improve timber quality?

This lecture note provides a comprehensive overview of timber grading and types for
undergraduate students in Building and Civil Engineering.
8. Sample Calculation: Moisture Content Adjustment
Problem Statement:

A timber beam initially has a moisture content of 30% and is dried to 15%. If the initial
weight is 50 kg, determine the final weight.

Solution:

10. Case Study: Timber Bridge Construction

Project: Glulam Timber Bridge in Norway

 Material: Glulam beams treated with anti-moisture coatings.

 Span: 25 meters.
 Sustainability: Used locally sourced timber, reducing carbon footprint.
 Outcome: Lightweight, durable, and aesthetically pleasing bridge with high load
capacity.

Figure 4: Glulam Timber Bridge Example

  Illustration of a modern timber bridge structure.

11. Discussion Questions

1. What is the difference between hardwood and softwood?
2. How is timber grading performed?
3. Why is engineered timber preferred in modern construction?
4. What are the main defects found in timber?
5. How does seasoning improve timber quality?
APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
AND ANALYSIS OF MEMBERS IN MODERN TIMBER-FRAMED
BUILDINGS

1. Introduction to Structural Design in Timber-Framed

Buildings
Timber framing is a widely used construction method that involves designing structural
elements (beams, columns, walls, floors, and roofs) using engineered or solid wood
members. The principles of structural design and analysis ensure that timber structures
are safe, durable, and efficient.

2. Fundamental Principles of Structural Design in Timber

Framing
2.1. Load Considerations in Timber Design

Designing a timber-framed building requires understanding applied loads:

✔ Dead Loads (DLDLDL) – Weight of structure and permanent materials (e.g., timber
members, roofing).
✔ Live Loads (LLLLLL) – Occupants, furniture, and movable elements.
✔ Wind Loads (WLWLWL) – Lateral and uplift forces on walls and roofs.
✔ Snow and Seismic Loads (SLSLSL, ELELEL) – Environmental effects in specific
regions.

2.2. Limit State Design Approach

Structural timber members are designed based on BS 5268 (Allowable Stress Design) and
Eurocode 5 (Limit State Design):
✔ Ultimate Limit State (ULS) – Ensures the structure withstands failure conditions.
✔ Serviceability Limit State (SLS) – Ensures deflection and vibration remain within
acceptable limits.
3. Structural Analysis of Timber-Framed Building
Members
3.1. Analysis of Timber Beams

📌 Example Application: Floor joists and roof rafters.

3.2. Analysis of Timber Columns (Stanchions/Posts)

3.3. Analysis of Timber Trusses

4. Modern Timber-Framed Building Design
Considerations
✔ Engineered Timber (Glulam, CLT, LVL) improves strength and sustainability.
✔ Fire Resistance Design follows charring rate calculations.
✔ Moisture Protection is achieved through coatings and preservative treatments.

5. Case Study: Multi-Story Timber Office Building

Project: Mjøstårnet, Norway (18-story timber building)
✔ Glulam beams and CLT walls for structural strength.
✔ Sustainable design reducing CO₂ emissions.
✔ Advanced joint technology for high-rise timber framing.
The principles of structural design and analysis in timber-framed buildings ensure
stability, safety, and efficiency. Modern engineered timber and advanced joint systems
enable the construction of tall, durable, and sustainable timber structures.

7. Discussion Questions
1. How does moisture content affect timber strength?
2. What is the importance of trusses in timber buildings?
3. Why is fire protection crucial in modern timber structures?
4. How do engineered wood products improve construction efficiency?
5. What are the design limitations of timber columns?
DESIGN OF TIMBER TRUSSES
1. Introduction to Timber Trusses
A timber truss is a structural framework composed of triangular units connected at joints
to support roof, floor, or bridge loads. Trusses efficiently distribute loads and provide
lightweight, durable, and cost-effective solutions in modern construction.

✔ Applications: Roofs, bridges, pavilions, storage sheds, and industrial buildings.

✔ Advantages: High strength-to-weight ratio, sustainability, and ease of prefabrication.

2. Types of Timber Trusses

Truss Type Description Application
King Post Small-span roofs, residential
Central vertical post with diagonal struts.
Truss houses.
Queen Post Medium-span roofs,
Two vertical posts with horizontal tie beam.
Truss warehouses.
Large-span roofs, industrial
Fink Truss ‘W’ shaped web members.
buildings.
Diagonal members in compression, vertical
Howe Truss Bridges, long-span roofs.
members in tension.
Diagonal members in tension, vertical members
Pratt Truss Heavy loads, bridges.
in compression.
Figure 1: Common Timber Truss Types

(Diagram showing King Post, Queen Post, Howe, and Pratt trusses with labeled
components.)

3. Design Principles for Timber Trusses

Trusses must be designed to withstand applied loads while maintaining stability and
durability. The main principles include:

✔ Load Distribution – Trusses transfer loads to supports or columns.

✔ Triangulation – Prevents deformation under load.
✔ Joint Design – Connections must resist shear and axial forces.
✔ Material Selection – Use seasoned and treated timber to prevent warping and decay.

4. Load Considerations in Truss Design

✔ Dead Loads (DL) – Weight of timber, roofing materials, insulation, etc.
✔ Live Loads (LL) – Snow, wind, maintenance loads.
✔ Wind Loads (WL) – Lateral forces on roof and walls.
✔ Seismic Loads (EL) – Vibrations in earthquake-prone areas.

Figure 2: Load Transfer in a Timber Truss

(Illustration showing force flow through members, including tension and compression zones.)

5. Structural Analysis of Timber Trusses

Common Methods for Truss Analysis:
 1. Method of Joints – Solves for member forces by considering equilibrium at each
joint.
2. Method of Sections – Used for analyzing forces in specific members.
3. Graphical Method – Quick estimation using force diagrams.

5.1. Axial Force Calculation Using Method of Joints

6. Timber Selection for Trusses

✔ Strength Class – Softwood (C16, C24) or Hardwood (D30, D40) per BS 5268 &
Eurocode 5.
✔ Moisture Content – Should be below 20% to prevent shrinkage.
✔ Preservation Treatments – Protection from termites, fire, and rot.

Table 1: Recommended Timber Strength Classes

Timber Type Strength Class Common Uses

Softwood C16, C24 Residential roofs, light trusses
Hardwood D30, D40 High-load bridges, industrial roofs

7. Timber Joint and Connection Design

✔ Bolted Connections – Used for high-strength joints.
✔ Nailed or Screwed Joints – Suitable for small loads.
✔ Gusset Plates – Reinforce truss intersections.

8. Case Study: Timber Truss Roof for a Warehouse

✔ Truss Type: Howe Truss
✔ Span: 12m
✔ Material: C24 Softwood
✔ Connection: Bolted joints with steel gusset plates
✔ Outcome: Lightweight, cost-effective, and structurally efficient roof system

Timber trusses provide strong, sustainable, and cost-effective solutions in modern

construction. Proper load analysis, material selection, and joint detailing ensure their
efficiency and durability.

9. Discussion Questions
1. Why is triangulation important in truss design?
2. What factors affect timber truss joint strength?
3. How does moisture content impact truss performance?
4. Compare Howe vs. Pratt trusses for long spans.
5. Explain wind load effects on timber trusses.

Example Question: Design of a Timber

Roof Truss
Problem Statement:
Step 1: Load Calculation

Step 2: Reaction Forces at Supports

Using force resolution:
✔ Top chord members in compression
✔ Bottom chord members in tension
✔ Diagonal members in mixed forces
Step 5: Joint and Connection Design
✔ Bolts Required for Gusset Plate Connection
Shear force on each bolt:

Final Design Summary

Member Force Type Force (kN) Section Selected
Top Chords Compression 84 kN 100 × 150 mm
Bottom Chords Tension 42 kN 75 × 150 mm
Diagonal Braces Mixed 28 kN 75 × 125 mm
Connections - - Bolted (4 bolts per joint)

✅ Final Design: Safe as per BS 5268.