Algebra Course, Interactive and Comprehensive - Google Docs
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amritakashivamAlgebra Course, Interactive and Comprehensive - Google Docs
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amritakashivam Comprehensive Course in Algebra:
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From Foundations to College Level
mbarking on the study of algebra represents a significant step towards a deeper
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understanding of mathematics and its vast applications. Algebra, at its core, serves as the
language through which mathematical relationships are expressed and explored. It involves the
use of symbols, primarily letters, to represent numbers and quantities that may be unknown or
variable. The central aim of algebra is often to solve for these unknowns and to understand the
connections between different quantities. This discipline forms a crucial foundation not only for
higher mathematics, such as calculus and linear algebra, but also for various fields in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), as well as numerous real-world scenarios2.
This course is meticulously structured to provide a thorough and engaging learning experience,
starting from the very basic concepts and progressively building towards the level of algebra
encountered in college. The emphasis will be on understanding the fundamental principles and
the reasoning behind each concept, ensuring a complete and enjoyable journey into the world of
algebra3.
hase 1: Laying the Groundwork - Pre-Algebra
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Concepts
Module 1: The Building Blocks of Numbers
he journey into algebra begins with a clear understanding of the different types of numbers that
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form its foundation. Mathematics utilizes various sets of numbers, each with its own
characteristics and properties.Natural numbers, denotedby the symbol N, are the counting
numbers: 1, 2, 3, and so on. These are the most basic numbers used for counting objects.
Expanding upon this set,whole numbers, symbolizedby W, include all natural numbers along
with zero (0). Next,integers, represented by Z, encompassall whole numbers and their
negatives: ..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, .... These numbers are essential for representing quantities that can
be both positive and negative.
eyond integers,rational numbers, denoted by Q, arenumbers that can be expressed as a
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fraction qp, where p and q are integers and q is not equal to zero. This set includes all
terminating decimals (e.g., 0.5, which is 21) and repeating decimals (e.g., 0.333..., which is 31).
In contrast,irrational numbers, symbolized by I,are numbers that cannot be expressed as a
simple fraction of two integers. These numbers have non-terminating and non-repeating decimal
expansions. Examples of irrational numbers include π (approximately 3.14159...) and 2
(approximately 1.41421...). Finally, the set ofrealnumbers, denoted by R, is the union of all
rational and irrational numbers. It includes every number that can be plotted on a number line.
Understanding these different sets of numbers is fundamental as algebra operates within the
realm of real numbers and explores relationships between them.
lgebraic manipulations rely heavily on the basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,
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multiplication, and division. Each of these operations has fundamentalpropertiesthat govern
ow numbers interact. Foraddition, these properties include thecommutative property
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(a+b=b+a), theassociative property((a+b)+c=a+(b+c)),theidentity property(a+0=a, where
0 is the additive identity), and theinverse property(a+(−a)=0, where −a is the additive inverse
of a).Subtractioncan be understood as the additionof the inverse: a−b=a+(−b). For
multiplication, the properties are thecommutativeproperty(a×b=b×a), theassociative
property((a×b)×c=a×(b×c)), theidentity property(a×1=a, where 1 is the multiplicative
identity), and thedistributive propertyover addition(a×(b+c)=(a×b)+(a×c)).Divisioncan be
understood as multiplication by the inverse (reciprocal): a÷b=a×b1(where b =0). These
properties are not arbitrary rules; they reflect fundamental ways in which numbers behave and
are crucial for justifying the steps taken when simplifying algebraic expressions and solving
equations.
hen an expression involves multiple arithmetic operations, theorder of operationsmust be
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followed to ensure a consistent and unambiguous result. A common mnemonic for this order is
PEMDAS (Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division from left to right, Addition and
Subtraction from left to right) or BODMAS (Brackets, Orders, Division and Multiplication from left
to right, Addition and Subtraction from left to right). This rule dictates that operations within
parentheses or brackets are performed first, followed by exponents or orders, then multiplication
and division from left to right, and finally addition and subtraction from left to right. For instance,
in the expression 3+2×(6−4)2, one would first evaluate the expression inside the parentheses
(6−4=2), then the exponent (22=4), then the multiplication (2×4=8), and finally the addition
(3+8=11). Adherence to this order is critical for accurate mathematical calculations.
lgebra introduces the concept ofvariablesandconstants.Variablesare symbols, typically
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letters such as x, y, or z, that represent quantities that are unknown or can change. They act as
placeholders for numbers.Constants, on the otherhand, are fixed numerical values, such as 3,
-5, or π. Algebraic expressions are formed by combining variables and constants using
arithmetic operations. For example, 3x+5 is an algebraic expression where x is the variable, 3
and 5 are constants, and the operations are multiplication and addition. Understanding the
distinction between variables and constants is essential for interpreting and manipulating
algebraic expressions and equations.
Module 2: Mastering Fractions, Decimals, and Percentages
significant portion of algebra involves working with numbers in different forms, particularly
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fractions, decimals, and percentages. Afractionrepresentsa part of a whole or, more
generally, any number of equal parts. It is written as ba, where a is the numerator (the number
of parts taken) and b is the denominator (the total number of equal parts). Fractions can be
classified intoproper fractions(where the numeratoris less than the denominator, e.g., 32),
improper fractions(where the numerator is greaterthan or equal to the denominator, e.g., 25),
andmixed numbers(which consist of a whole numberand a proper fraction, e.g., 221).
Fractions can besimplifiedby dividing both the numeratorand the denominator by their
greatest common factor (GCF). For example, 86canbe simplified to 43since the GCF of 6
and 8 is 2.
erformingoperations with fractionsrequires specificrules. To add or subtract fractions, they
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must have acommon denominator. If they do not, onemust find theleast common multiple
( LCM)of the denominators and convert the fractions accordingly. For example, to add 31+41,
the LCM of 3 and 4 is 12. So, 31becomes 124and 41becomes 123, and their sum is
124+3=127. To multiply fractions, one simply multiplies the numerators together and the
denominators together: ba×dc=bdac. To divide fractions, one multiplies the first fraction by the
reciprocal of the second: ba÷dc=ba×cd=bcad.
ecimalsprovide another way to represent numbers,particularly those that are not whole
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numbers. They are based on powers of 10, with each digit to the right of the decimal point
representing a fraction with a denominator of 10, 100, 1000, and so on. Theplace valueof
each digit in a decimal is crucial for understanding its magnitude. For example, in the number
3.145, the 1 is in the tenths place (101), the 4 is in the hundredths place (1004), and the 5 is in
the thousandths place (10005).Operations with decimalsfollow similar rules to those with
whole numbers, but careful attention must be paid to the placement of the decimal point. For
addition and subtraction, the decimal points must be aligned. For multiplication, the number of
decimal places in the product is the sum of the decimal places in the factors. For division, it may
be necessary to adjust the decimal point in both the divisor and the dividend to make the divisor
a whole number.Conversion between decimals and fractionsis a useful skill. A terminating
decimal can be easily converted to a fraction by writing the digits after the decimal point as the
numerator and the appropriate power of 10 as the denominator, then simplifying. For example,
0.75 is 10075, which simplifies to 43. A fraction can be converted to a decimal by dividing the
numerator by the denominator.
ercentagesare a way of expressing a number as afraction of 100. The term "percent" means
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"out of one hundred." A percentage is denoted by the symbol %. To convert a percentage to a
decimal, one divides by 100 (or moves the decimal point two places to the left). For example,
75% is equal to 75÷100=0.75. To convert a decimal to a percentage, one multiplies by 100 (or
moves the decimal point two places to the right). For example, 0.25 is equal to 0.25×100=25%.
To convert a percentage to a fraction, one writes the percentage as the numerator and 100 as
the denominator, then simplifies. For example, 40% is 10040, which simplifies to 52.
Applications of percentagesare prevalent in everydaylife, including calculating discounts,
taxes, and interest rates. Solvingpercentage problemsoften involves translating the problem
into an algebraic equation. Common types of percentage problems include finding the
percentage of a number (e.g., what is 20% of 50?), finding what percentage one number is of
another (e.g., 10 is what percentage of 40?), and finding the whole when a percentage is known
(e.g., if 15% of a number is 30, what is the number?).
atiosandproportionsare also important conceptsin pre-algebra. Aratiois a comparison
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between two quantities. It can be written in several ways: as a fraction (ba), using a colon (a:b),
or using the word "to" (a to b). The order of the quantities in a ratio is important. Aproportionis
an equality between two ratios: ba=dcor a:b=c:d. Proportions are often used to solve problems
where two quantities are related by a constant factor. They can be solved using
cross-multiplication, which states that if ba=dc,then ad=bc. For example, if 5x=108, then
10x=5×8, so 10x=40, and x=4. Understanding and working with fractions, decimals,
percentages, ratios, and proportions provides a solid arithmetic foundation for the more abstract
concepts in algebra4.
Module 3: Introduction to Algebraic Expressions
lgebraic expressions are the fundamental building blocks of algebraic equations and formulas.
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Analgebraic expressionis a combination of variables,constants, and arithmetic operations. It
does not contain an equality or inequality sign. The components of an algebraic expression
includeterms,coefficients, andconstants. Atermis a single number or a product of a
number and one or more variables raised to powers. For example, in the expression
4x2−3xy+7y−9, the terms are 4x2, −3xy, 7y, and −9. The numerical factor of a term containing
variables is called thecoefficient. In the exampleabove, the coefficient of x2 is 4, the
coefficient of xy is -3, and the coefficient of y is 7. Aconstantterm is a term that has no
variables; in the example, -9 is the constant term.
oevaluate an algebraic expression, one substitutesgiven numerical values for the variables
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and then performs the arithmetic operations according to the order of operations. For instance,
to evaluate the expression 2a+3b when a=5 and b=−2, one substitutes these values to get
2(5)+3(−2)=10−6=4. This process allows us to find the numerical value of an expression for
specific values of its variables.
ombining like termsis a crucial skill for simplifyingalgebraic expressions.Like termsare
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terms that have the same variable part, meaning they contain the same variables raised to the
same powers. For example, 3x2 and −5x2 are like terms, while 3x2 and 3x are not. To combine
like terms, one adds or subtracts their coefficients while keeping the variable part the same. For
example, 7y+4y−2y=(7+4−2)y=9y. This simplification makes expressions easier to work with
and understand.
hedistributive propertyis a fundamental rule thatallows us to multiply a factor across the
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terms inside parentheses. It states that for any numbers a, b, and c, a(b+c)=ab+ac. This
property can also be extended to subtraction: a(b−c)=ab−ac. The distributive property is
essential for simplifying expressions that contain parentheses. For example,
3(2x+7)=3(2x)+3(7)=6x+21. It is also used in reverse when factoring algebraic expressions.
Understanding and applying these concepts related to algebraic expressions is a foundational
step towards solving equations and inequalities4.
Module 4: Basic Equations and Inequalities
lgebra is primarily concerned with finding unknown values, andequationsandinequalities
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are the tools used to represent and solve for these unknowns. Anequationis a statement that
two algebraic expressions are equal. It is characterized by the presence of an equality sign (=).
For example, 2x+3=7 is an equation. The goal when solving an equation is to find the value(s)
of the variable(s) that make the statement true. Equations have several importantproperties of
equalitythat allow us to manipulate them withoutchanging their solutions. Theaddition
property of equalitystates that if a=b, then a+c=b+cfor any number c. Similarly, the
subtraction property of equalitystates that if a=b,then a−c=b−c. Themultiplication
property of equalitystates that if a=b, then ac=bcfor any number c. Thedivision property of
equalitystates that if a=b and c =0, then ca=cb.These properties allow us to perform the
same operation on both sides of an equation to isolate the variable.
Aone-step linear equationis an equation that canbe solved in a single step using one of the
inverse operations. For example, to solve x+5=12, we use the subtraction property of equality
and subtract 5 from both sides: x+5−5=12−5, which gives x=7. To solve 3y=15, we use the
division property of equality and divide both sides by 3: 33y=315, which gives y=5. Similarly, for
z−8=2, we add 8 to both sides to get z=10, and for 4w=6, we multiply both sides by 4 to get
w=24. Practicing these one-step equations builds a fundamental understanding of how to isolate
variables.
ninequalityis a statement that compares two algebraicexpressions using inequality symbols:
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less than (<), greater than (>), less than or equal to (≤), or greater than or equal to (≥). For
example, 3x−1<8 is an inequality. The solution to an inequality is the set of all values of the
variable that make the statement true. Inequalities can be represented on anumber line, where
an open circle is used for < and > (indicating that the endpoint is not included in the solution),
and a closed circle is used for ≤ and ≥ (indicating that the endpoint is included). The solution set
can also be written usinginterval notation.
olving aone-step linear inequalityis similar tosolving a one-step linear equation, with one
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important difference. When multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a negative
number, the direction of the inequality sign must be reversed. For example, to solve −2x>6, we
divide both sides by -2 and reverse the inequality sign: −2−2x<−26, which gives x<−3. For
inequalities involving addition or subtraction, the process is the same as with equations. For
example, to solve y+4≤9, we subtract 4 from both sides: y≤5. Understanding how to solve basic
equations and inequalities is a crucial first step in mastering algebra4.
Phase 2: Diving into Algebra 1
Module 5: Linear Equations and Inequalities in Detail
uilding upon the foundation of basic equations,multi-steplinear equationsinvolve more than
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one operation to isolate the variable. A structured approach is often helpful for solving these.
Typically, one should first simplify each side of the equation by distributing and combining like
terms. Then, the goal is to get all the terms with the variable on one side of the equation and all
the constant terms on the other side, using the addition and subtraction properties of equality.
Finally, the variable can be isolated by using the multiplication or division property of equality.
For example, to solve 3(x+2)−5=10, first distribute the 3: 3x+6−5=10. Then combine like terms:
3x+1=10. Subtract 1 from both sides: 3x=9. Finally, divide by 3: x=3.
inear equations can also havevariables on both sidesof the equation. The strategy to solve
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these is to use the addition or subtraction property of equality to gather all the variable terms on
one side and all the constant terms on the other side. For example, to solve 5y−7=2y+8, we can
subtract 2y from both sides: 3y−7=8. Then, add 7 to both sides: 3y=15. Finally, divide by 3: y=5.
pplications of linear equationsoften come in theform ofword problems. Solving these
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requires translating the words into algebraic equations. A systematic approach includes reading
the problem carefully to understand what is being asked, identifying the unknown quantity and
assigning a variable to it, translating the given information into an equation based on the
relationships described, solving the equation, and then interpreting the solution in the context of
the original problem. For example, if the problem states "The sum of a number and 7 is 15," we
can let n be the number and write the equation n+7=15. Solving this gives n=8. Various types of
word problems exist, such as number problems, age problems, and geometry problems5.
ulti-step linear inequalitiesare solved using thesame principles as multi-step linear
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equations, with the crucial reminder to reverse the inequality sign when multiplying or dividing
by a negative number. The solutions to these inequalities are often represented on a number
line using open or closed circles and shaded regions, and can also be expressed using interval
notation. For example, to solve 2x+5≤11, first subtract 5 from both sides: 2x≤6. Then divide by
2: x≤3. The solution in interval notation is (−∞,3].
ompound inequalitiesinvolve two or more inequalitiesjoined by "and" or "or". For an "and"
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compound inequality (e.g., x>2 and x<7), the solution set includes all values of x that satisfy
both inequalities simultaneously. This is the intersection of the two solution sets. For an "or"
compound inequality (e.g., x<−1 or x>4), the solution set includes all values of x that satisfy
either one or both of the inequalities. This is the union of the two solution sets.
bsolute value equations and inequalitiesinvolvethe absolute value of an expression. The
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absolute value of a number is its distance from zero, and it is always non-negative. To solve an
absolute value equation of the form ∣ax+b∣=c (where c≥0), we consider two cases: ax+b=c and
ax+b=−c. We solve each of these equations separately. For absolute value inequalities of the
form ∣ax+b∣<c, the solution is equivalent to −c<ax+b<c (an "and" compound inequality). For
inequalities of the form ∣ax+b∣>c, the solution is equivalent to ax+b>c or ax+b<−c (an "or"
compound inequality)6.
odule 6: Visualizing Algebra - Graphs of Linear Equations and
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Inequalities
he connection between algebra and geometry is fundamental, and theCartesian coordinate
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systemprovides a way to visualize algebraic relationships.This system is formed by two
perpendicular number lines, the horizontalx-axisand the verticaly-axis, intersecting at a point
called theorigin, which corresponds to the coordinates(0, 0). The plane is divided into four
quadrantsby these axes. Each point in the plane canbe uniquely identified by anordered pair
of numbers (x,y), where x represents the horizontal distance from the origin (the x-coordinate or
abscissa) and y represents the vertical distance from the origin (the y-coordinate or ordinate).
linear equationin two variables (x and y) representsa straight line when graphed on the
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Cartesian plane. There are several common forms of linear equations, each useful in different
situations. Theslope-intercept formis given by y=mx+b,where m is theslopeof the line and
b is they-intercept(the point where the line crossesthe y-axis). The slope m represents the
rate of change of y with respect to x, or the "rise over run" between any two points on the line.
The y-intercept is the point (0, b).
nother useful form is thepoint-slope form, givenby y−y1=m(x−x1), where m is the slope and
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(x1,y1) is a specific point on the line. This form is particularly helpful when we know the slope of
a line and one point that it passes through. Thestandardformof a linear equation is Ax+By=C,
where A, B, and C are constants, and A and B are not both zero. The intercepts of the line can
e easily found from this form. To find the x-intercept (where the line crosses the x-axis), we set
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y=0 and solve for x. To find the y-intercept, we set x=0 and solve for y.
heslopeof a line describes its steepness and direction.It can be calculated using the formula
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m=x2−x1y2−y1for any two distinct points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) on the line. A positive slope
indicates that the line goes upward from left to right, a negative slope indicates that it goes
downward, a slope of zero indicates a horizontal line (of the form y=b), and an undefined slope
indicates a vertical line (of the form x=a).
raphing linear inequalities in two variablesinvolvesfirst graphing the boundary line, which
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is the graph of the corresponding linear equation (replace the inequality sign with an equality
sign). If the inequality is strict (< or >), the boundary line is drawn as a dashed line to indicate
that the points on the line are not included in the solution. If the inequality includes equality (≤ or
≥), the boundary line is drawn as a solid line. Then, we need to determine which side of the
boundary line represents the solution set. This can be done by choosing a test point (any point
not on the line, such as the origin (0, 0) if the line does not pass through it), substituting its
coordinates into the inequality, and checking if the inequality is true or false. If it is true, then the
half-plane containing the test point is the solution region; if it is false, then the other half-plane is
the solution region. The solution region is typically shaded4.
Module 7: Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities
system of linear equations(also known as a linearsystem) is a set of two or more linear
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equations that contain the same variables. Thesolutionto a system of linear equations in two
variables is an ordered pair (x,y) that satisfies all the equations in the system simultaneously.
Graphically, the solution represents the point(s) where the lines intersect. There are three
possible outcomes when graphing two linear equations: the lines intersect at one point (one
unique solution), the lines are parallel and do not intersect (no solution), or the lines are the
same (infinitely many solutions).
here are several algebraic methods for solving systems of linear equations. Thegraphing
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methodinvolves graphing each equation on the samecoordinate plane and finding the point of
intersection. This method is useful for visualizing the solution but may not always give exact
answers if the intersection point has non-integer coordinates.
hesubstitution methodinvolves solving one of theequations for one variable in terms of the
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other variable, and then substituting this expression into the other equation. This results in an
equation with only one variable, which can be solved. Once the value of that variable is found, it
can be substituted back into either of the original equations to find the value of the other
variable. For example, to solve the system y=2x+1 and 3x+y=6, we can substitute the first
expression for y into the second equation: 3x+(2x+1)=6. This simplifies to 5x+1=6, so 5x=5, and
x=1. Substituting x=1 back into the first equation gives y=2(1)+1=3. Thus, the solution is (1,3).
heelimination method(also known as the addition/subtractionmethod) involves manipulating
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the equations so that the coefficients of one of the variables are opposites or the same. Then,
by adding or subtracting the equations, one of the variables can be eliminated, resulting in an
equation with only one variable. For example, to solve the system 2x+3y=8 and 4x−3y=−2, we
can add the two equations together. The y terms cancel out: (2x+4x)+(3y−3y)=8+(−2), which
ives 6x=6, so x=1. Substituting x=1 into the first equation gives 2(1)+3y=8, so 3y=6, and y=2.
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Thus, the solution is (1,2)6.
ystems of linear equations can be used to solvewordproblems involving multiple
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unknowns. By carefully defining variables for eachunknown quantity and setting up a system
of equations based on the given information, we can find the values of these unknowns.
system of linear inequalities in two variablesisa set of two or more linear inequalities that
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contain the same variables. Thesolutionto such asystem is the set of all ordered pairs (x,y)
that satisfy all the inequalities in the system simultaneously. Graphically, the solution is the
region where the shaded regions of all the inequalities overlap. To find the solution, we graph
each inequality on the same coordinate plane and identify the common shaded area. The
boundary lines are included in the solution if the inequality includes equality (≤ or ≥) and are not
included if the inequality is strict (< or >).
Module 8: Exponents and Polynomials
xponentsprovide a concise way to represent repeatedmultiplication. If n is a positive integer
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and a is a real number, then an means a multiplied by itself n times (a×a×...×a, n times). Here, a
is thebaseand n is theexponentorpower. Thereare several importantrules of integer
exponentsthat simplify expressions involving exponents.Theproduct rulestates that
am×an=am+n. Thequotient rulestates that anam=am−n(where a =0). Thepower rulestates
that (am)n=am×n. Thepower of a product rulestatesthat (ab)n=an×bn. Thepower of a
quotient rulestates that (ba)n=bnan(where b =0).Thezero exponent rulestates that a0=1
(where a =0). Thenegative exponent rulestates thata−n=an1(where a =0)4.
cientific notationis a way to express very largeor very small numbers in the form a×10n,
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where 1≤∣a∣<10 and n is an integer. This notation is widely used in science and engineering to
handle numbers with many zeros. For example, the number 3,000,000 can be written in
scientific notation as 3×106, and the number 0.000025 can be written as 2.5×10−5.
polynomialis an algebraic expression consistingof one or more terms, where each term is a
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product of a constant and one or more variables raised to non-negative integer powers. A
polynomial with one term is called amonomial(e.g.,5x2), a polynomial with two terms is called
abinomial(e.g., 3x+2), and a polynomial with threeterms is called atrinomial(e.g., x2−4x+7).
Thedegree of a termin a polynomial is the sum ofthe exponents of the variables in that term.
Thedegree of the polynomialis the highest degreeof any of its terms. Polynomials can be
classified by their degree: a degree of 0 is a constant, degree 1 is linear, degree 2 is quadratic,
degree 3 is cubic, and so on.
perations with polynomialsinclude addition, subtraction,and multiplication. Toadd or
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subtract polynomials, we combine like terms. For addition,we simply add the coefficients of
the like terms. For subtraction, we can think of it as adding the additive inverse (negating the
coefficients of the terms in the polynomial being subtracted) and then combining like terms. For
example, (2x2+3x−1)+(x2−5x+4)=(2x2+x2)+(3x−5x)+(−1+4)=3x2−2x+3. And
(2x2+3x−1)−(x2−5x+4)=(2x2−x2)+(3x−(−5x))+(−1−4)=x2+8x−5.
Tomultiply polynomials, we use the distributive property.Each term in the first polynomial is
ultiplied by each term in the second polynomial, and then the resulting like terms are
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combined. For multiplying two binomials, a common method is called FOIL (First, Outer, Inner,
Last), which refers to the order in which the terms are multiplied. For example,
(x+2)(3x−4)=(x×3x)+(x×−4)+(2×3x)+(2×−4)=3x2−4x+6x−8=3x2+2x−8. Understanding exponents
and polynomials is crucial for further study in algebra7.
Phase 3: Advancing Your Skills - Algebra 2 Concepts
Module 9: Factoring Polynomials
actoring polynomialsis the reverse process of multiplication.It involves expressing a
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polynomial as a product of simpler polynomials or monomials. This skill is essential for solving
polynomial equations, simplifying rational expressions, and understanding the roots of
polynomial functions. The first step in factoring is often to look for thegreatest common factor
(GCF)of all the terms in the polynomial. The GCFis the largest factor that divides each term. If
a GCF other than 1 exists, it can be factored out of the polynomial using the distributive property
in reverse. For example, in the polynomial 6x3+9x2−12x, the GCF of the coefficients 6, 9, and
-12 is 3, and the GCF of the variable parts x3, x2, and x is x. Thus, the GCF of the entire
polynomial is 3x, and we can factor it out as 3x(2x2+3x−4).
actoringtrinomials(polynomials with three terms)often depends on the form of the trinomial.
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For a quadratic trinomial of the form ax2+bx+c, where the leading coefficient a=1 (i.e., x2+bx+c),
we look for two numbers that multiply to c and add up to b. If we find such numbers, say m and
n, then the trinomial can be factored as (x+m)(x+n). For example, to factor x2+7x+10, we need
two numbers that multiply to 10 and add to 7. These numbers are 2 and 5, so
x2+7x+10=(x+2)(x+5).
hen the leading coefficient a =1 in a quadratic trinomial ax2+bx+c, factoring can be more
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challenging. One common method is to usegrouping.We look for two numbers that multiply to
ac and add up to b. Let these numbers be p and q. Then we rewrite the middle term bx as
px+qx, giving us ax2+px+qx+c. We then factor by grouping the first two terms and the last two
terms. For example, to factor 2x2+5x+2, we need two numbers that multiply to 2×2=4 and add
to 5. These numbers are 1 and 4. So, we rewrite the middle term as x+4x: 2x2+x+4x+2. Now we
factor by grouping: x(2x+1)+2(2x+1)=(x+2)(2x+1).
here are also severalspecial productfactoring patterns.Thedifference of squarespattern
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states that a2−b2=(a−b)(a+b). For example, x2−9=(x−3)(x+3).Perfect square trinomialsfollow
the patterns a2+2ab+b2=(a+b)2 and a2−2ab+b2=(a−b)2. For example, x2+6x+9=(x+3)2 and
4y2−12y+9=(2y−3)2. Thesum and difference of cubespatterns are a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)
and a3−b3=(a−b)(a2+ab+b2). For example, x3+8=(x+2)(x2−2x+4) and
27y3−1=(3y−1)(9y2+3y+1).
actoring by groupingcan also be used for polynomialswith four or more terms. We group the
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terms in pairs or other suitable combinations and factor out the GCF from each group. If the
resulting expressions in the parentheses are the same, we can then factor out this common
binomial factor. For example, to factor x3+2x2−3x−6, we can group the first two terms and the
last two terms: (x3+2x2)+(−3x−6). Factoring out the GCF from each group gives
x2(x+2)−3(x+2). Now we have a common binomial factor of (x+2), which we can factor out:
(x+2)(x2−3). Mastering these factoring techniques is crucial for solving polynomial equations4.
Module 10: Quadratic Equations and Functions
quadratic equationis an equation that can be writtenin the standard form ax2+bx+c=0,
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where a, b, and c are constants and a =0. There are several methods forsolving quadratic
equations. One method is byfactoring. If the quadraticexpression ax2+bx+c can be factored
into two linear factors, say (px+q)(rx+s), then the solutions to the equation are found by setting
each factor equal to zero and solving for x. For example, to solve x2−5x+6=0, we factor the
quadratic as (x−2)(x−3)=0. Setting each factor to zero gives x−2=0⇒x=2 and x−3=0⇒x=3. So,
the solutions are x=2 and x=3.
hesquare root propertycan be used to solve equationsof the form (x−h)2=k, where k≥0.
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Taking the square root of both sides gives x−h=±k, so x=h±k. For example, to solve (x−1)2=9,
we take the square root of both sides to get x−1=±3, which gives x=1+3=4 or x=1−3=−2.
ompleting the squareis a method that can be usedto solve any quadratic equation. It
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involves transforming the equation into the form (x−h)2=k by manipulating the quadratic
expression. For an equation ax2+bx+c=0, we first divide by a (if a =1) to get x2+abx+ac=0.
Then we move the constant term to the right side: x2+abx=−ac. Next, we take half of the
coefficient of the x term (2ab), square it (4a2b2), and add it to both sides of the equation:
x2+abx+4a2b2=−ac+4a2b2. The left side is now a perfect square: (x+2ab)2=4a2b2−4ac. We
can then use the square root property to solve for x.
hequadratic formulais a general formula for findingthe solutions (roots) of any quadratic
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equation in the standard form ax2+bx+c=0. The formula is given by x=2a−b±b2−4ac. This
formula is derived by completing the square on the general quadratic equation. The part of the
formula under the square root, b2−4ac, is called thediscriminant, and it tells us about the
nature of the solutions. If b2−4ac>0, there are two distinct real solutions. If b2−4ac=0, there is
exactly one real solution (a repeated root). If b2−4ac<0, there are two complex solutions.
quadratic functionis a function that can be writtenin the form f(x)=ax2+bx+c, where a, b,
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and c are constants and a =0. The graph of a quadratic function is aparabola, a U-shaped
curve. Thevertexof the parabola is the point wherethe parabola changes direction, and it is
either the minimum or maximum point of the function. Theaxis of symmetryis a vertical line
that passes through the vertex and divides the parabola into two symmetric halves. The vertex
form of a quadratic function is y=a(x−h)2+k, where (h,k) is the vertex of the parabola. The
standard form y=ax2+bx+c can be converted to vertex form by completing the square. The
x-coordinate of the vertex in standard form is given by h=−2ab, and the y-coordinate is
k=f(h)=a(−2ab)2+b(−2ab)+c. The parabola opens upward if a>0 and downward if a<0. The
interceptsof the parabola (where it crosses the x-axisand y-axis) can be found by setting y=0
to find the x-intercepts (which are the real roots of the equation ax2+bx+c=0) and setting x=0 to
find the y-intercept (which is at the point (0,c)). Quadratic equations and functions have many
applicationsin real-world problems, such as modelingprojectile motion, calculating areas, and
optimizing quantities4.
Module 11: Radical Expressions and Equations
ootsandradicalsare closely related to exponents.The $n$th root of a number a, denoted by
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na, is a number that, when raised to the power of n, equals a. If n=2, we have thesquare root,
written as a. If n=3, we have thecube root, writtenas 1a. The number n is called theindexof
the radical, and a is called theradicand. There isa strong connection between radicals and
fractional exponents: na=a1/n. This relationshipallows us to use the rules of exponents to
simplify and work with radicals. For example, a=a1/2, 1a=a1/3, and so on. Also,
nam=am/n=(a1/n)m=(na)m.
implifying radical expressionsinvolves using theproperties of radicals. Theproduct rule
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for radicalsstates that nab=na×nb. Thequotientrule for radicalsstates that nba=nbna
(where b =0). These rules allow us to break down radicals into simpler forms. For example,
12=4×3=4×3=23. We aim to remove any perfect $n$th power factors from the radicand.
perations with radical expressionsfollow certainrules. Toadd or subtract radicals, they
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must belike radicals, meaning they have the sameindex and the same radicand. If they are
like radicals, we can add or subtract their coefficients: anc±bnc=(a±b)nc. For example,
35+75=105. Tomultiply radicalswith the same index,we multiply the radicands: na×nb=nab.
For example, 2×8=16=4. Todivide radicalswiththe same index, we divide the radicands:
nbna=nba.
ationalizing the denominatoris a process of eliminatingradicals from the denominator of a
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fraction. This is often done to simplify the expression and make it easier to work with. If the
denominator contains a single radical term like b, we multiply both the numerator and the
denominator by b. For example, 31=3×31×3=33. If the denominator is a binomial containing
square roots, such as a+bor a+b, we multiply both the numerator and the denominator by its
conjugate, which is a−bor a−b, respectively. This uses the difference of squares pattern to
eliminate the radicals in the denominator. For example, 2+31=(2+3)(2−3)1×(2−3)=4−32−3=2−3.
olving radical equationsinvolves isolating the radicalterm on one side of the equation and
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then raising both sides to the power equal to the index of the radical to eliminate it. It is crucial to
check for extraneous solutionswhen solving radicalequations, as this process can
sometimes introduce solutions that do not satisfy the original equation. For example, to solve
x+2=3, we square both sides to get x+2=9, so x=7. Checking this solution in the original
equation gives 7+2=9=3, which is true, so x=7 is the solution. However, if we solve x=−2,
squaring both sides gives x=4. But 4=2 =−2, so x=4 is an extraneous solution, and the original
equation has no real solution.
omplex numbersextend the real number system to includesolutions to equations like x2=−1,
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which have no real solutions. We define theimaginaryuniti such that i2=−1, so i=−1. A
complex number is expressed in the form a+bi, where a and b are real numbers. The number a
is called the real part, and b is called the imaginary part. Operations with complex numbers
follow the rules of algebra, with the understanding that i2 is replaced by -1 whenever it occurs8.
Module 12: Rational Expressions and Equations
rational expressionis a fraction where both thenumerator and the denominator are
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polynomials. For example, x+2x2−1is a rational expression.Simplifying rational expressions
involves factoring both the numerator and the denominator and then canceling out any common
factors. For example, x+2x2−1=x+2(x−1)(x+1). If x =−2, this expression is in simplest form as
there are no common factors to cancel.
omultiply rational expressions, we multiply thenumerators together and the denominators
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together, just like with numerical fractions: QP×SR=QSPR. We then simplify the resulting
rational expression by factoring and canceling common factors. Todivide rational
expressions, we multiply the first expression by thereciprocal of the second:
QP÷SR=QP×RS=QRPS. Again, we simplify the result by factoring and canceling common
factors.
oadd or subtract rational expressions, they musthave acommon denominator. If they do
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not, we need to find theleast common denominator(LCD), which is the least common
multiple of the denominators. Once we have a common denominator, we can add or subtract
the numerators and keep the same denominator: CA±CB=CA±B. After performing the operation,
we should simplify the resulting rational expression if possible.
rational equationis an equation that contains oneor more rational expressions. Tosolve a
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rational equation, a common strategy is to multiplyboth sides of the equation by the least
common denominator (LCD) of all the rational expressions in the equation. This will eliminate
the denominators and result in a polynomial equation, which we can then solve using the
techniques we have learned. However, it is crucial tocheck for extraneous solutions, which
are solutions to the resulting polynomial equation that make the denominator of any of the
original rational expressions equal to zero. These values are not valid solutions to the original
rational equation because division by zero is undefined. For example, to solve x−2x=x3, the
LCD is x(x−2). Multiplying both sides by the LCD gives x2=3(x−2), which simplifies to
x2−3x+6=0. Using the quadratic formula, we find the solutions. We must then check if these
solutions make the denominators x−2 or x equal to zero.
ational expressions and equations have variousapplications,including problems involving
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rates, work, and proportions. For instance, rate problems often involve equations with rational
expressions representing speeds or times8.
Phase 4: Preparing for College Algebra
Module 13: Functions in Depth
he concept of afunctionis central to all of highermathematics. A function is a relation
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between a set of inputs (called thedomain) and aset of possible outputs (called therange)
such that each input is related to exactly one output. We often use the notation f(x) to represent
a function, where x is the input variable and f(x) is the output value. Thevertical line test
provides a graphical way to determine if a relation is a function: if any vertical line drawn on the
graph intersects the graph at more than one point, then the relation is not a function.
here are severaltypes of functionsthat are commonlyencountered in algebra.Linear
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functionshave the form f(x)=mx+b and their graphsare straight lines.Quadratic functions
have the form f(x)=ax2+bx+c and their graphs are parabolas.Polynomial functionsare of the
form f(x)=anxn+an−1xn−1+...+a1x+a0, where n is a non-negative integer.Rational functions
are functions that can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials, f(x)=Q(x)P(x).Exponential
functionshave the form f(x)=ax (where a>0 and a =1),andlogarithmic functions(introduced
briefly here and covered in more detail in the next module) are the inverses of exponential
functions.
hegraphs of functionscan be transformed in variousways.Vertical shiftsinvolve adding or
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subtracting a constant to the function: f(x)+c shifts the graph up by c units, and f(x)−c shifts it
down by c units.Horizontal shiftsinvolve addingor subtracting a constant to the input: f(x−c)
shifts the graph to the right by c units, and f(x+c) shifts it to the left by c units.Vertical stretches
and compressionsare achieved by multiplying the functionby a constant: cf(x) stretches the
graph vertically if ∣c∣>1 and compresses it if 0<∣c∣<1.Horizontal stretches and compressions
are achieved by multiplying the input by a constant: f(cx) compresses the graph horizontally if
∣c∣>1 and stretches it if 0<∣c∣<1.Reflectionsacrossthe x-axis are given by −f(x), and reflections
across the y-axis are given by f(−x).
function is said to havesymmetryif its graph hascertain properties. A function f isevenif
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f(−x)=f(x) for all x in its domain. The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis. A
function f isoddif f(−x)=−f(x) for all x in itsdomain. The graph of an odd function is symmetric
about the origin.
oevaluate a functionfor a given input value, wesubstitute that value for the variable in the
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function's expression. For example, if f(x)=x2−3x+2, then f(4)=42−3(4)+2=16−12+2=6.
healgebra of functionsinvolves performing arithmeticoperations on functions. If f and g are
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two functions, then their sum is (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x), their difference is (f−g)(x)=f(x)−g(x), their
product is (f×g)(x)=f(x)×g(x), and their quotient is (gf)(x)=g(x)f(x)(where g(x) =0).Composition
of functionsinvolves applying one function to theresult of another. The composition of f with g
is denoted by (f∘g)(x)=f(g(x)).
ninverse functionof a function f, denoted by f−1,is a function such that f(f−1(x))=x and
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f−1(f(x))=x for all x in their respective domains. Not all functions have inverses; a function must
be one-to-one (pass the horizontal line test) to have an inverse. To find the inverse of a function
y=f(x), we can switch x and y and then solve the resulting equation for y. The graph of f−1 is the
reflection of the graph of f across the line y=x9.
Module 14: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
xponential functionsare functions of the form f(x)=ax,where the base a is a positive
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constant (a>0) and a =1, and the exponent x is the variable. Thedomainof an exponential
function is all real numbers, and therangeis allpositive real numbers (if a>0). The graph of an
exponential function has a horizontal asymptote at y=0. If a>1, the function represents
exponential growth; if 0<a<1, it represents exponential decay. Common examples include
f(x)=2x (growth) and f(x)=(21)x (decay).
ogarithmic functionsare the inverses of exponentialfunctions. If y=ax, then x=loga(y). The
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logarithmic function with base a is written as f(x)=loga(x). The domain of a logarithmic function is
all positive real numbers, and the range is all real numbers. The graph of a logarithmic function
has a vertical asymptote at x=0. The graph of y=loga(x) is the reflection of the graph of y=ax
across the line y=x. Two common bases for logarithms are base 10 (common logarithm, written
as log(x)) and base e (natural logarithm, written as ln(x), where e≈2.71828).
herelationship between exponential and logarithmicfunctionsis fundamental: y=ax is
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equivalent to x=loga(y). This equivalence is crucial for converting between the two forms and for
solving exponential and logarithmic equations.
here are several importantlaws of logarithmsthathelp simplify logarithmic expressions. The
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product rulestates that loga(MN)=loga(M)+loga(N).Thequotient rulestates that
loga(NM)=loga(M)−loga(N). Thepower rulestatesthat loga(Mp)=ploga(M). Thechange of
base formulaallows us to convert logarithms fromone base to another: loga(b)=logc(a)logc(b),
where c can be any suitable base (often 10 or e).
olving exponential equationsoften involves takingthe logarithm of both sides of the
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equation. For example, to solve 2x=7, we can take the natural logarithm of both sides:
ln(2x)=ln(7), which gives xln(2)=ln(7), so x=ln(2)ln(7).Solving logarithmic equationsoften
involves converting the equation to its exponential form. For example, to solve log3(x−2)=4, we
convert it to 34=x−2, so 81=x−2, and x=83. It is important to check the domain of the logarithmic
function to ensure that the solution is valid (the argument of the logarithm must be positive).
xponential and logarithmic functions have numerousapplicationsin modeling real-world
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phenomena. Exponential functions are used to model growth and decay processes, such as
population growth, radioactive decay, and compound interest. Logarithmic functions are used in
scales like the Richter scale for earthquakes and the decibel scale for sound intensity8.
Module 15: Systems of Equations and Inequalities (Advanced Topics)
e have previously discussed systems of linear equations. Now we extend this tonon-linear
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systems of equations, which involve equations whereat least one equation is not linear (e.g.,
it might involve quadratic, exponential, or logarithmic terms). Solving these systems can be
more complex. The methods ofsubstitutionandeliminationare often still applicable. For
example, to solve the system y=x2 and y=2x+3 by substitution, we can set the expressions for y
equal to each other: x2=2x+3, which gives the quadratic equation x2−2x−3=0. Factoring this
gives (x−3)(x+1)=0, so x=3 or x=−1. Substituting these values back into either of the original
equations (e.g., y=x2) gives the corresponding y values: if x=3, y=32=9; if x=−1, y=(−1)2=1.
Thus, the solutions are (3,9) and (−1,1).
ystems of inequalities in two variablescan alsoinvolve non-linear inequalities. The solution
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region is found by graphing each inequality and identifying the area where all the shaded
regions overlap. For example, to find the solution to the system y≥x2 and y≤−x+2, we would
graph the parabola y=x2 (solid line) and shade the region above it, and then graph the line
y=−x+2 (solid line) and shade the region below it. The solution is the area where these two
shaded regions overlap.
atricesprovide a powerful tool for representingand solving systems of linear equations,
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especially those with more than two variables. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers
arranged in rows and columns. We can perform basicmatrix operationssuch as addition,
subtraction, and multiplication under certain conditions. Thedeterminant of a square matrixis
a scalar value that can be calculated from the elements of the matrix and has several important
properties. For a 2×2 matrix (acbd), the determinant is ad−bc. For larger matrices, the
calculation is more involved. Matrices can be used to solve systems of linear equations using
methods likeCramer's ruleor by using theinverseof a matrix. Cramer's rule uses
determinants to find the solution for each variable in a system of linear equations. The inverse of
a matrix, if it exists, can be multiplied by the constant terms of the system to find the solution
vector. These methods are particularly useful for larger systems of linear equations where
substitution or elimination can become cumbersome11.
Module 16: Sequences and Series
sequenceis an ordered list of numbers. Each numberin the sequence is called a term.
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Sequences can be finite or infinite. Anarithmeticsequenceis a sequence where the difference
between any two consecutive terms is constant. This constant difference is called thecommon
difference, denoted by d. The formula for the $n$thterm (an) of an arithmetic sequence is
an=a1+(n−1)d, where a1is the first term. Ageometricsequenceis a sequence where the ratio
between any two consecutive terms is constant. This constant ratio is called thecommon ratio,
denoted by r. The formula for the $n$th term (an) of a geometric sequence is an=a1×r(n−1),
where a1is the first term.
seriesis the sum of the terms of a sequence. Anarithmetic seriesis the sum of the terms of
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an arithmetic sequence. The sum of the first n terms (Sn) of an arithmetic series is given by
Sn=2n(a1+an) or Sn=2n(2a1+(n−1)d). Ageometricseriesis the sum of the terms of a
geometric sequence. The sum of the first n terms (Sn) of a geometric series is given by
Sn=1−ra1(1−rn)(where r =1). Aninfinite geometricseriesis the sum of an infinite number of
terms of a geometric sequence. An infinite geometric series converges to a finite sum if the
absolute value of the common ratio is less than 1 (∣r∣<1), and the sum is given by S=1−ra1. If
∣r∣≥1, the series diverges and does not have a finite sum. Understanding sequences and series
provides a foundation for more advanced topics in mathematics, such as calculus and discrete
mathematics8.
Interactive Practice and Review
hroughout this course, it is crucial to incorporateinteractive exercisesafter each sub-topic
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and module to reinforce learning and assess understanding13. These exercises should include
a variety of question types, such as multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, true/false, and open-ended
problems, to cater to different learning styles and evaluate comprehension at various levels3.
Practice problems with step-by-step solutionsshouldbe readily available to allow for
self-checking and to provide insights into the problem-solving process2. Quizzesat the end of
each module will help gauge mastery of the key concepts covered3.
o maintain engagement and demonstrate the relevance of algebra, it is essential to include
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real-world applications and examplesthroughout thecourse2. Connecting abstract algebraic
concepts to concrete situations can make the learning process more meaningful and
memorable.
egularreview exercisesandcumulative assessmentsare vital for reinforcing learning and
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ensuring long-term retention of the material3. Thesecan include revisiting previously covered
topics in later modules and providing comprehensive tests that cover material from multiple
modules. Resources such as Khan Academy, Mathplanet, VideoText Algebra, Accelerate Online
Academy, and Thinkwell offer various interactive tools and practice materials that can
supplement this course3. The availability of step-by-stepsolutions is particularly important for
self-learners, enabling them to identify and correct mistakes and understand the correct
approach to solving problems. By actively engaging with the material through practice and
review, a deeper and more lasting understanding of algebra can be achieved.
Conclusion: Your Foundation in Algebra
his comprehensive course has taken you on a journey through the fundamental concepts of
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algebra, starting from the basic building blocks of numbers and progressing through advanced
topics such as functions, exponential and logarithmic equations, and systems of non-linear
equations. The material covered spans pre-algebra, Algebra 1, and Algebra 2, laying a solid
foundation for college-level algebra studies21. Consistentpractice and regular review of the
concepts and techniques learned throughout this course are essential for continued success in
mathematics. The ability to think logically, solve problems systematically, and understand the
relationships between different mathematical concepts are skills that will be invaluable not only
in future mathematics courses but also in many other academic and professional fields. This
course has been designed to provide you with a thorough and detailed understanding of
algebra, addressing your desire for completeness and interactivity. With the knowledge and
skills gained, you are well-prepared to embark on further mathematical endeavors with
confidence.
Table 1: Sets of Numbers
Set Name Symbols Description Examples
Natural Numbers N Counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ...
Whole Numbers W atural numbers
N 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
plus zero
Integers Z hole numbers and
W ..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...
their negatives
Rational Numbers Q umbers that can
N 1, −43, 0.5,
2
be expressed as a -0.333...
fraction qp(where
p,q∈Z and q =0)
Irrational Numbers I umbers that
N π, 2, e
cannot be
expressed as a
simple fraction
Real Numbers R he set of all
T ll numbers on the
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rational and number line
irrational numbers
Table 2: Properties of Arithmetic Operations
Property Name Addition (a+b) Multiplication (a×b)
Commutative a+b=b+a a×b=b×a
Associative (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) (a×b)×c=a×(b×c)
Identity a+0=a a×1=a
Inverse a+(−a)=0 a×a1=1 (if a =0)
Distributive a×(b+c)=(a×b)+(a×c)
Table 3: Rules of Exponents
Rule Name Rule
Product Rule am×an=am+n
Quotient Rule anam=am−n (if a =0)
Power Rule (am)n=am×n
Power of a Product Rule (ab)n=an×bn
Power of a Quotient Rule (ba)n=bnan(if b =0)
Zero Exponent Rule a0=1 (if a =0)
Negative Exponent Rule a−n=an1(if a =0)
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