Unit 3

Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows users to move from one network
to another while keeping the same IP address. It ensures continuous
communication without dropping sessions or connections.

Terminologies:
Mobile Node (MN): The user’s handheld device, like a cell phone.

Home Network: The original network to which the mobile node’s IP address
(home address) belongs.

Home Agent (HA): A router in the home network where the mobile node was
originally connected.

Home Address: The permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node in its
home network.

Foreign Network: The network the mobile node is currently visiting, different
from its home network.

Foreign Agent (FA): A router in the foreign network where the mobile node is
currently connected. It receives packets from the home agent and delivers
them to the mobile node.

Correspondent Node (CN): A device on the internet that communicates with

the mobile node.

Care-of Address (COA): A temporary address used by the mobile node while
away from its home network.

Foreign Agent COA: The COA is the IP address of the foreign agent, which
forwards packets to the mobile node. Multiple mobile nodes can share this
COA.

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 Co-located COA: The mobile node temporarily acquires an additional IP
address as its COA, making it the tunnel endpoint. This address can be
obtained using services like DHCP.

How It Works:
1. The correspondent node (CN) sends data to the mobile node (MN). The data
packets have the CN's address as the source and the MN's home address as
the destination.

2. These packets first reach the home agent (HA).

3. Since the MN is now in a foreign network, not the home network, the foreign
agent (FA) informs the HA of the MN's care-of address (COA), where all
packets should be sent.

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 4. A tunnel is created between the HA and FA through a process called tunneling.

Tunneling:

Tunneling sets up a virtual path between the tunnel entry (HA) and the
endpoint (FA).

This involves encapsulating the original data packets within new packets.

1. The HA encapsulates the original data packets, setting the source address as
the HA and the destination address as the COA, then sends them through the
tunnel to the FA.

2. The FA receives these encapsulated packets, decapsulates them, and

forwards the original data packets to the MN.

3. The MN receives the data and sends a response back to the FA.

4. The FA then sends this response directly to the CN.

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

1. Agent Discovery:

Agents (home and foreign) periodically broadcast messages to announce

their presence.

The mobile node (MN) receives these messages and checks if they are
from its home agent.

This helps the MN determine if it is in the home network or a foreign

network.

2. Agent Registration:

After finding a foreign agent (FA), the MN sends a registration request

(RREQ) to the FA.

The FA forwards this request, along with the care-of address (COA), to the
home agent (HA).

The HA sends a registration reply (RREP) back to the FA.

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 The FA then sends the registration reply to the MN, completing the
registration process.

3. Tunneling:

Tunneling sets up a virtual path (pipe) for packets between the tunnel
entry (HA) and the endpoint (COA).

It involves encapsulating the original data packets to send them through

the tunnel.

When the HA receives a packet from the correspondent node (CN), it

encapsulates the packet, setting the source address as the home address
and the destination as the COA, and then sends it through the tunnel to the
FA.

Route Optimization in Mobile IP:

Route optimization helps improve the efficiency of data delivery in Mobile IP:

Binding Cache: The correspondent node (CN) uses a binding cache, which
stores the mobile node's (MN) home address and current care-of address
(COA).

Binding Update: When the home agent (HA) receives a packet for the MN, it
sends a binding update to the CN to update its binding cache with the MN’s
current COA.

Direct Tunneling: After updating, the CN can directly send packets to the MN
using the COA.

Network Provider Role: Mobile IP services are managed by network

providers.

Encapsulation

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 In Mobile IP, encapsulation is a method used to add extra headers to IP packets to
help route and forward them between mobile nodes and their home and
correspondent nodes as they move across different networks. There are two main
types of encapsulation in Mobile IP:

1. Tunneling:

Tunneling involves wrapping IP packets with a new IP header.

When a mobile node moves to a new network, it gets a care-of address

(CoA).

Packets sent to the mobile node's home address are tunneled from the
correspondent node to the home agent.

The original packet is wrapped with a new IP header, with the destination
set to the CoA.

This method allows packets to reach the mobile node's new location while
keeping the original packet header for end-to-end communication.

2. IP in IP Encapsulation:

This is a specific type of tunneling where the original IP packet is wrapped

within a new IP header.

The new outer IP header contains routing information to deliver the packet
to the CoA.

The original packet becomes the payload of the outer IP packet.

This technique supports seamless mobility of mobile devices across

different networks.

Encapsulation is essential in Mobile IP because it enables the transparent routing

of IP packets, ensuring they are correctly delivered to the mobile node's current
location. This allows mobile devices to stay connected while moving between
networks.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

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 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol
used to automatically assign IP addresses and other network configuration
settings to devices on a network. Here’s how it works:

1. IP Address Assignment: When a device (like a computer, smartphone, or

printer) connects to a network, it needs an IP address to communicate with
other devices. Instead of manually configuring each device with an IP address,
DHCP automatically assigns one from a pool of available addresses
maintained by a DHCP server.

2. Dynamic Configuration: DHCP allows for dynamic allocation of IP addresses,

meaning devices receive temporary addresses for a limited period. This
prevents address conflicts and efficiently manages the use of available IP
addresses. When a device disconnects from the network or its lease expires,
the IP address is returned to the pool for reuse.

3. Network Configuration Settings: Besides IP addresses, DHCP can also

provide other network configuration settings to devices, such as:

Subnet mask: Defines the network's boundaries.

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 Default gateway: Specifies the router through which devices can access
external networks.

Domain Name System (DNS) servers: Translate domain names (like

www.example.com) into IP addresses.

Domain name: Identifies the network's domain name.

Time servers: Provide devices with the current time and date.

4. DHCP Server: A DHCP server is a network device responsible for managing

and assigning IP addresses and configuration settings to devices. It listens for
DHCP requests from devices and responds with appropriate configuration
information. DHCP servers can be standalone devices or integrated into
routers, switches, or servers.

Overall, DHCP simplifies network administration by automating the process of IP

address allocation and configuration, making it easier to manage large networks
and reducing the likelihood of configuration errors.

Ad hoc networks
Ad hoc networks are wireless networks formed by devices that talk directly to
each other, without needing a main hub or control center. They're useful in places
where regular networks aren't possible.

1. Decentralized: These networks don't rely on a main hub. Instead, all the
devices talk to each other directly.

2. Dynamic Topology: The shape of the network changes as devices move

around. This makes ad hoc networks great for when things are always moving.

3. Self-Organization: Devices in ad hoc networks figure out how to connect to

each other without needing someone to tell them what to do.

4. Limited Resources: Devices in these networks don't have a lot of power or

memory, so they need to be careful with how they use their energy.

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 5. Routing Challenges: Sending messages between devices in these networks
can be tricky because the layout of the network keeps changing.

6. Applications: Ad hoc networks are used in many different situations, like

during emergencies, in cars, with sensors, and even when people want to
connect their phones together.

7. Security: Keeping information safe in ad hoc networks is tough because

there's no one big boss making sure everything is secure.

Ad hoc networks are handy because they can work in places where regular
networks can't, but they also have some special problems that need solving, like
how to manage power, how to send messages around, and how to keep
everything secure.

Localization
Localization in Mobile IP means finding the location of a mobile device within a
network or between networks as it moves around. Knowing where the device is
helps provide location-based services, use network resources better, and ensure
smooth transitions between network areas.
Geolocation Techniques: These are methods used to find the device's location.
They include:

GPS (Global Positioning System)

Wi-Fi positioning

Cellular triangulation

Sensor fusion (using data from multiple sensors like GPS, accelerometers,
and gyroscopes)

Location Updates: This means sending the device's current location (latitude and
longitude) to the network. Updates can happen automatically when the device
moves or connects to a different network.

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 Location Management: This helps the network send data to the device efficiently
and offer location-based services.
Handover Optimization: Knowing the device's location helps make handovers
between network areas smoother by predicting where the device will move next.
Privacy Considerations: While finding the device's location is useful, it also brings
up privacy issues because it involves tracking where users go.

MAC Issues in Mobile Computing

1. Collision Avoidance: In wireless networks, many devices share the same
communication space. MAC protocols like CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance) help prevent collisions, which happen when
multiple devices send data at the same time, causing data corruption.
However, in busy environments, these protocols might not work well, leading
to poor network performance and more lost data.

2. Hidden Terminal Problem: This problem occurs when two devices can
communicate with a third device but can't see each other. They might
unknowingly interfere with each other's transmissions, causing collisions.
MAC protocols like RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send) help reduce this
problem by signaling before sending data to reserve the communication
channel.

3. Exposed Terminal Problem: This happens when a device doesn't send data
because it mistakenly thinks another nearby device is using the channel. In
reality, it could send data without causing problems. Protocols like RTS/CTS
help by allowing devices to announce their plans to transmit data, reducing
unnecessary waiting.

4. MAC Layer Attacks: Mobile devices can face attacks like spoofing,
eavesdropping, deauthentication, and denial-of-service. These attacks exploit
weaknesses in MAC protocols to disrupt communication, steal data, or
impersonate devices. Using secure MAC protocols and encryption methods
like WPA2 or WPA3 helps protect against these threats.

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 5. Channel Congestion: In crowded areas or networks with heavy traffic, too
many devices trying to use the same channel can cause congestion. This
leads to slower performance and more competition for the communication
medium. MAC protocols need to manage channel access efficiently to avoid
congestion and ensure fair use of resources.

MANET Routing Protocols

In a Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes don’t know the network layout. They
have to figure it out themselves because the network constantly changes. When a
new node joins, it must announce its presence and listen for announcements from
other nodes.

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 1. Pro-active Routing Protocols: Also known as table-driven protocols, each
node keeps a routing table with routes to all possible destinations. These
tables are regularly updated as the network changes. However, this method
doesn’t work well for large networks because the tables can get too big.

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): This is

a proactive protocol that extends distance vector routing. It uses the
Bellman-Ford algorithm and avoids the count-to-infinity problem by adding
a sequence number to each routing entry. Nodes update their tables only
if they receive a route with a higher sequence number.

Global State Routing (GSR): This protocol extends link-state routing. It

uses Dijkstra’s algorithm and avoids network congestion by not flooding
the network with routing packets. Each node keeps an adjacency list,
topology table, next hop table, and distance table.

2. Reactive Routing Protocols: Also known as on-demand protocols, routes are

discovered only when needed by flooding route request packets through the
network. There are two main phases: route discovery and route maintenance.

Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR): In this protocol, routes are

discovered only when needed. The source node keeps the complete path
information, and intermediate nodes do not maintain routing info. It has
two phases:

Route Discovery: Finds the best path for data transmission.

Route Maintenance: Keeps the route working despite changes in the

network.

Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing Protocol (AODV): This improves on

DSR by not storing the complete path in the source node. Instead, each
node only keeps info about its previous and next node. This prevents large
headers and slow network performance as the network grows. It also has
route discovery and route maintenance phases.

3. Hybrid Routing Protocols: These combine the benefits of both reactive and
pro-active protocols. They adapt based on the zone and position of the nodes.
One popular hybrid protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).

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 Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP): The network is divided into zones. If the
source and destination are in the same zone, proactive routing is used. If
they are in different zones, reactive routing is used. This ensures efficient
data transmission.

Characteristics of MANET Routing Protocols

To handle routing effectively in MANETs, routing protocols should have the
following features:

1. Widely Distributed: The routing protocol should be able to work across the
entire network.

2. Localized: It should operate efficiently within a local area of the network.

3. Adaptable to Change: Because nodes move frequently, the protocol must

adjust quickly to changes in the network layout.

4. Avoid Impermeable Routes: It should not use routes that are likely to become
inaccessible.

5. Fast Convergence: The protocol should quickly find and establish routes.

6. Local Information Storage: Each node should only need to keep information
about the nearby network topology.

7. High-Quality Service: The protocol should ensure reliable and efficient

communication.

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technology that lets you make voice calls
and use multimedia services over the internet or other IP networks instead of
traditional phone lines. VoIP turns voice signals into digital data packets, which are
sent over IP networks like the internet. It offers many benefits over traditional
phone systems, such as cost savings, flexibility, and advanced features.

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 1. Packet Switching: VoIP converts voice signals into small data packets and
sends them using packet-switched technology. This method uses network
bandwidth more efficiently than the circuit-switched systems used in
traditional phones.

2. Codec: VoIP uses codecs (coder-decoders) to compress and decompress

voice signals into digital data, optimizing bandwidth usage and ensuring high-
quality voice transmission. Common codecs include G.711 (PCM), G.729, and
Opus.

3. Protocols: VoIP relies on various protocols for signaling, call setup, and data
transmission. The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is widely used for starting,
maintaining, and ending VoIP sessions. Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
and Secure Real-Time Transport Protocol (SRTP) are used to securely
transport voice and multimedia data over IP networks.

4. Endpoints: VoIP endpoints include devices like IP phones, softphones

(software-based phones), mobile apps, and VoIP adapters that connect
traditional analog phones to VoIP networks. These endpoints convert analog
voice signals into digital data and vice versa, allowing users to make and
receive VoIP calls.

5. Features: VoIP offers many features beyond basic voice calls, including video
calling, conference calling, instant messaging, presence information,
voicemail, call forwarding, and call recording. These features enhance
communication and collaboration.

6. Integration: VoIP can be integrated with other communication systems and

applications, such as email, CRM (Customer Relationship Management)
software, and unified communications platforms. This integration enables
seamless communication across multiple channels and boosts productivity.

7. Challenges: VoIP faces challenges like network latency, packet loss, jitter, and
security threats (e.g., eavesdropping, call spoofing). Quality of Service (QoS)
mechanisms, encryption, and authentication protocols help overcome these
challenges and ensure reliable and secure VoIP communication.

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 IP Security (IPSec)
IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) is a set of protocols developed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) to secure communication between two points over
an IP network. It ensures data authentication, integrity, and confidentiality, and
handles the encryption, decryption, and authentication of data packets. IPSec also
defines protocols for secure key exchange and management.

Uses of IPSec
IPSec can be used for:

1. Encrypting Data: Protecting application layer data by encrypting it.

2. Securing Routers: Ensuring the security of routing data sent across the public
internet.

3. Authentication: Verifying the sender's identity without encrypting the data.

4. VPN Connections: Creating secure tunnels for encrypted data transfer

between two endpoints, like a Virtual Private Network (VPN).

Components of IPSec
IPSec consists of the following components:

1. Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP): Provides data integrity, encryption,

authentication, and protection against replay attacks. It authenticates the
payload of the data.

2. Authentication Header (AH): Ensures data integrity, authentication, and

protection against replay attacks without encrypting the data. It does not
provide confidentiality.

3. Internet Key Exchange (IKE): A protocol for dynamically exchanging

encryption keys and establishing Security Associations (SAs) between
devices. SAs define shared security attributes for secure communication. IKE
uses the ISAKMP framework for authentication and key exchange, ensuring
message protection and allowing the implementation of standard algorithms

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 like SHA and MD5. It ensures that only authorized packets are delivered to the
receiver by generating a unique identifier for each packet.

IP Security Architecture
The IPSec architecture uses ESP and AH protocols to secure data flow. It includes
protocols, algorithms, Domain of Interpretation (DOI), and key management
components to provide:

1. Confidentiality: Keeping data private through encryption.

2. Authenticity: Verifying the identity of the data source.

3. Integrity: Ensuring that data is not altered during transmission.

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 How IP Security (IPSec) Works

1. Packet Check: The host checks if a packet should use IPSec. If yes, it triggers
a security policy and applies the necessary encryption. Incoming packets are
also checked to ensure they are properly encrypted.

2. IKE Phase 1: In this phase, two hosts using IPSec authenticate each other to
create a secure channel. This phase has two modes:

Main Mode: Provides higher security.

Aggressive Mode: Establishes the IPSec connection more quickly.

3. Secure Negotiation: The secure channel created in Phase 1 is used to

negotiate how the IPSec circuit will encrypt data.

4. IKE Phase 2: Conducted over the secure channel, this phase involves the two
hosts agreeing on the cryptographic algorithms and secret keys to be used for
the session.

5. Data Exchange: Data is exchanged through the IPSec encrypted tunnel. The
hosts use IPSec Security Associations (SAs) to encrypt and decrypt the
packets.

6. Session Termination: When the communication is finished or the session

times out, the IPSec tunnel is closed by both hosts discarding the encryption
keys.

Features of IPSec
1. Authentication: IPSec verifies the identity of IP packets using digital
signatures or shared secrets, ensuring packets are not tampered with or
forged.

2. Confidentiality: IPSec encrypts IP packets to prevent eavesdropping on

network traffic.

3. Integrity: IPSec ensures IP packets are not altered or corrupted during

transmission.

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 4. Key Management: IPSec manages cryptographic keys, including key
exchange and revocation, to keep keys secure.

5. Tunneling: IPSec supports tunneling, allowing IP packets to be wrapped inside

another protocol like GRE (Generic Routing Encapsulation) or L2TP (Layer 2
Tunneling Protocol).

6. Flexibility: IPSec can be configured for various network setups, including

point-to-point, site-to-site, and remote access connections.

7. Interoperability: IPSec is an open standard supported by many vendors,

making it usable in diverse environments.

Advantages of IPSec
1. Strong Security: Provides robust cryptographic security to protect sensitive
data and ensure network privacy and integrity.

2. Wide Compatibility: Being an open standard, it is widely supported by many

vendors and works well in different environments.

3. Flexibility: Can secure various network setups, from point-to-point to large-

scale remote access connections.

4. Scalability: Can be scaled to secure both small and large networks as needed.

5. Improved Network Performance: Can enhance network performance by

reducing congestion and increasing efficiency.

Disadvantages of IPSec
1. Complex Configuration: Can be complicated to set up and requires
specialized knowledge.

2. Compatibility Issues: Might have compatibility problems with some network

devices and applications, leading to interoperability issues.

3. Performance Impact: Encryption and decryption processes can slow down

network performance.

4. Key Management: Requires effective management of cryptographic keys to

ensure security.

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 5. Limited Protection: Only secures IP traffic, leaving other protocols like ICMP,
DNS, and routing protocols potentially vulnerable to attacks.

Transport Layer in Mobile Computing

The transport layer is super important in mobile computing because it makes sure
mobile devices can talk to network servers and other places efficiently and
reliably. It takes care of sending and putting together data packets, spotting and
fixing errors, and managing how data flows.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

TCP is a really reliable way for mobile devices to talk to each other.

It makes sure data gets where it needs to go by checking it's received,

resending any lost bits, and putting things in the right order.

But in mobile situations, TCP can sometimes have hiccups because of things
like switching between different parts of the network, losing packets because
of weak wireless signals, or changing network speeds.

To deal with these issues, there are special ways to make TCP work better on
mobiles, like Fast Handover tricks, tweaking TCP to handle wireless networks
better, and making sure network delays don't slow things down too much.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

UDP is a simpler way for devices to talk without all the fuss of making sure
every bit arrives perfectly.

It's great for things that need to happen quickly, like live chatting, video
streaming, gaming, or sending info between smart devices.

While UDP doesn't check for errors or control how fast data flows, mobile
apps can build their own ways to handle mistakes and keep data moving
smoothly.

Mobile Transport Layer Protocols:

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 Some transport protocols are made just for mobiles to deal with their special
needs.

For example, Mobile TCP (M-TCP) tries to make regular TCP work better on
mobile networks by understanding how devices move around, and SCTP
(Stream Control Transmission Protocol) helps with having more than one way
to connect and keeps going even if parts of the network fail.

Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

Mobile TCP (M-TCP) is a version of the standard TCP designed for mobile
computing. It aims to improve TCP performance in mobile networks that have high
mobility, frequent handovers, and changing network conditions.

1. Fast Handover Support: M-TCP helps reduce disruptions caused when mobile
devices switch between different network cells or access points.

2. Mobility-Aware Congestion Control: M-TCP adjusts how it controls network

congestion based on the movement patterns of mobile devices and the
characteristics of wireless networks.

3. Buffer Management: M-TCP optimizes how data is stored temporarily to

prioritize and handle TCP packets better, reducing delays and improving
performance.

4. Transmission Rate Adaptation: M-TCP can change the data transmission rate
based on available bandwidth, network delay, and signal quality.

5. Error Recovery Mechanisms: M-TCP includes improved methods to recover

from packet loss, transmission errors, and other common wireless network
problems.

6. Cross-Layer Optimization: M-TCP works with lower-layer protocols and

network management systems to enhance performance and resource use
across different parts of the network.

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