Calculus 1 (Math 105)

0.1. Functions

Page 1 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Chapter 3: Graphs and Functions
3.1 Functions

1.1.1 Relations
1.1.1.1 Representation of Relations
1.1.1.2 Domain and Range

1.1.2 Functions
1.1.2.1 Determining Whether Relations Are Functions
1.1.2.2 Function Notation
1.1.2.3 Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions

3.2 Appendix

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3.1 Functions
Cartesian coordinate systems.

• Each point on a coordinate axis is associated with a number called its

coordinate.
• Each point on a flat, two-dimensional surface, called a coordinate plane or 𝑥𝑦-
plane, is associated with an ordered pair of numbers called coordinates of
the point.

Definition 1: Ordered Pairs

An ordered pair consists of two components, written inside parentheses

(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑥 is the first component (or coordinate) and 𝑦 is the second
component (or coordinate), where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers.

Definition 2: Equality of Ordered Pairs

The ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) and (𝑐, 𝑑) are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 =
𝑑.

1.1.3Relation

Definition 3: Relation

A relation is any set of ordered pairs.

Definition 4: Domain and Range of a Relation

• The set of all first components of the ordered pairs is called the
domain of the relation.
• The set of all second components is called the range of the relation.

Example 1

Find the domain and range of the relation:

{(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐), (4, 𝑑)}.

Solution

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The domain of the relation is the set {1,2,3,4}.

The range of the relation is the set {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}.

1.1.3.1 Representation of Relations

As long as the numbers come in pairs, then that becomes a relation.

We can represent Relations (or functions) in many ways.

• Relation in set notation:

{(−2,1), (−2,3), (0, −3), (1,4), (3,1)}

• Relation in table

𝒙 𝒚
−𝟐 1
−𝟐 3
𝟎 −3
𝟏 4
𝟑 1
• Relation in graph

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 • Relation in mapping diagram (Venn’s Diagram)

Note that in each relation above

✓ The domain is {−2,0,1,3}.

✓ and the range is {−3,1,3,4}.

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1.1.4 Introduction to Functions and Function Notation

Definition 5: Definition of a Function

A function is a relation in which each member of the domain (input values

𝑥) corresponds to exactly one member of the range (output values 𝑦).

To get a better idea of this definition, look at the function that relates the
time of day to the temperature in Figure below.

This function can be represented by the following set of ordered pairs.

{(1, 9∘ ), (2, 13∘ ), (3, 15∘ ), (4, 15∘ ), (5, 12∘ ), (6, 4∘ )}

In each ordered pair, the first coordinate ( 𝑥-value) is the input and the
second coordinate ( 𝑦-value) is the output.

In this example, note the following characteristics of a function.

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 • Each element of 𝐴 (the domain) must be matched with an element
of 𝐵 (the range).

• Some elements of 𝐵 may not be matched with any element of 𝐴.

• Two or more elements of 𝐴 may be matched with the same

element of 𝐵.

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 • An element of 𝐴 cannot be matched with two different elements of
𝐵. The following diagram does not represent a function.

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 1.1.4.1 Testing for Functions

Example 2

Determine whether each relation is a function:

(a) 𝐹 = {(1,6), (2,6), (3,8), (4,9)}

(b) 𝐺 = {(6,1), (6,2), (8,3), (9,4)}.

(c)

(d)

(e)

Solution
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(a) Relation 𝐹 = {(1,6), (2,6), (3,8), (4,9)} is a function, because for each

different 𝑥-value there is exactly one 𝑦-value.

We can show this correspondence using a mapping diagram.

(b)

Relation 𝐺 = {(6,1), (6,2), (8,3), (9,4)} is not a function, because that one

first component (the element 6) corresponds to more than one second

component (the elements 1 and 2).

(c )

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Since we have same value of 𝑥, 5 in the domain with different 𝑦-values (9

and 3) in the range, then this relation is not a function.

(d)

This figure represents a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵. It does not matter that each

element of 𝐴 is matched with the same element of 𝐵.

(e)

This figure does not represent a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵. The element 𝑎 of 𝐴

is matched with two elements of 𝐵. This is also true of the element 𝑏.

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Checkpoint 1

Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {1,3,5,7}. Decide whether each set of ordered pairs
represents a function from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵.

(a) {(𝑎, 1), (𝑐, 5), (𝑑, 7)} (b) {(𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 7), (𝑐, 1), (𝑑, 3)} (c){(𝑏, 3), (𝑏, 5)}

Solution

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 1.1.4.2 Representing Functions by Equations

Definition 6: Representing Functions by Equations

• Representing functions by sets of ordered pairs is a common

practice in discrete mathematics.
• In algebra, however, it is more common to represent functions by
equations or formulas involving two variables.

✓ For instance, the equation

𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥.

represents the variable 𝑦 as a function of the variable 𝑥.

✓ In this equation, 𝑥 is the independent variable and 𝑦 is the

dependent variable.

✓ The domain of the function is the set of all values taken on by

the independent variable 𝑥,

✓ and the range of the function is the set of all values taken on by
the dependent variable 𝑦.

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Example 3

Which of the equations represent(s) 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥 ?

(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 1 (b) −𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 1

Solution

To determine whether 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥, try to solve for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.

(a) Solving for 𝑦 yields

𝑥2 + 𝑦 = 1 Write original equation.

𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥2 Solve for 𝑦.
.

To each value of 𝑥 there corresponds exactly one value of 𝑦.

So, 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥.

(b) Solving for 𝑦 yields

−𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 1 Write original equation.

𝑦2 = 1 + 𝑥 Add 𝑥 to each side.

𝑦 = ±√1 + 𝑥 Solve for 𝑦.

The ± indicates that to a given value of 𝑥 there correspond two values of

𝑦. So, 𝑦 is not a function of 𝑥.

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Checkpoint 2

Determine whether each equation represents 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥.

(a) 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑥 2 (b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 (c) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥

Solution

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1.1.5 Function Notation.

Definition 7: Function Notation.

When an equation is used to represent a function, it is convenient to

name the function so that it can be referenced easily.

➢ For example, you know that the equation 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 describes 𝑦 as

a function of 𝑥.
➢ Suppose you give this function the name " 𝑓".
➢ Then you can use the function notation shown below

➢ The symbol 𝑓(𝑥) is read as the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥 or simply 𝑓 of 𝑥.

➢ The symbol 𝑓(𝑥) corresponds to the 𝑦-value for a given 𝑥.
➢ So, you can write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
➢ Keep in mind that 𝑓 is the name of the function, whereas 𝑓(𝑥) is the
value of the function at 𝑥.
➢ For instance, the function given by

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 2𝑥

has function values denoted by 𝑓(−1), 𝑓(0), 𝑓(2), and so on.

➢ To find these values, substitute the specified input values into the
given equation.

For 𝑥 = −1,

𝑓 (−1) = 3 − 2(−1)
= 3 + 2 = 5.
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For 𝑥 = 0,

𝑓(0) = 3 − 2(0)

=3−0=3
For 𝑥 = 2,

𝑓(2) = 3 − 2(2)
= 3 − 4 = −1

Note That

• Although 𝑓 is often used as a convenient function name and 𝑥 is

often used as the independent variable, you can use other
letters.

• For instance,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7, 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 7, and 𝑔(𝑠) = 𝑠 2 − 4𝑠 + 7

all define the same function.

In fact, the role of the independent variable in a function is simply

that of a “placeholder.”

Consequently, the function above could be described

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Page 18 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
 1.1.5.1 Evaluating a Function

Example 4

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1. Evaluate 𝑔(𝑥) at each specified value and simplify.

(a) 𝑔(2) (b) 𝑔(𝑡) (c) 𝑔(𝑥 + 2)

Solution

(a) Replace 𝑥 with 2 in 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1.

𝑔(2) = −(2)2 + 4(2) + 1 = −4 + 8 + 1 = 5

(b) Replace 𝑥 with 𝑡.

𝑔(𝑡) = −(𝑡)2 + 4(𝑡) + 1 = −𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 + 1

(c) Replace 𝑥 with 𝑥 + 2.

𝑔(𝑥 + 2) = −(𝑥 + 2)2 + 4(𝑥 + 2) + 1

= −(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4) + 4𝑥 + 8 + 1
= −𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4 + 4𝑥 + 8 + 1
= −𝑥 2 + 5

Checkpoint 3

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1, and evaluate.

(a) 𝑓(−5) (b) 𝑓(3𝑏) (c) 3𝑓(𝑏) (d) 𝑓(𝑎 +

3) (e) 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(3)

Solution

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Example 5

For each function, find

(a) 𝑓(1) =

(b) 𝑔(2) =
𝑔 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑘), (3, 𝑚), (4, 𝑛)}

(c) ℎ(3) =

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1.1.6Graph of an equation
The equations below are equations in two variables.

(1) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 2 ,
(2) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 ,
𝑥
(3) 𝑦= .
𝑥+1

➢ The solution of an equation in two variables is an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦)

whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
➢ For instance, the ordered pairs (3,4), (4, −3), and (0,5) are some of
the solutions of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25.
➢ Generally, there are an infinite number of solutions of an equation in
two variables.
➢ These solutions can be displayed in a graph.

Definition 8: Graph of an Equation

The graph of an equation in the two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 is the set of all
points whose coordinates satisfy the equation.

Example 6

Draw a Graph by Plotting Points:

Graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1.

Solution

Substituting various values of 𝑥 into the equation and solving for 𝑦

produces some of the ordered pairs of the equation.

It is convenient to record the results in a table similar to the one shown

below.

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The graph of the ordered pairs is shown in the Figure below.

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Example 7

Graph: −𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 1.

Solution

Solve the equation for 𝑦

⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1.

Select values of 𝑥 and use the equation to calculate 𝑦. Choose enough

values of 𝑥 so that an accurate graph can be drawn.

Plot the points and draw a curve through them. See the Figure below.

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 1.1.6.1 Domain and Rage of a Function

The graph of a function helps us to picture the domain and range of the
function on the 𝑥-axis and 𝑦-axis, as shown in the box below.

The domain and range of a function

The domain and range of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be obtained from a graph
of 𝑓 as shown in the figure. The domain is the set of all 𝑥-values for which
𝑓 is defined, and the range is all the corresponding 𝑦-values.

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Example 8

(a) Use a graphing calculator to draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 .

(b) Find the domain and range of 𝑓.

Solution

(a) The graph is shown in the Figure below.

(b) From the graph in the Figure above we see that the domain is [−2,2]

and the range is [0,2].

Definition 9: Domain of a Function

The domain of a function is the set of all input values (all real numbers)
for which the function will produce a real number.

Definition 10: Finding the Domain of a Function Defined by an Equation

1. Start with the domain as the set of real numbers.

2. If the equation has a denominator, exclude any numbers that give a
zero denominator.
3. If the equation has a radical of even index, exclude any numbers that
cause the expression inside the radical (the radicand) to be negative.

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Example 9

Determine the domain of each function.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 (b) 𝑔(𝑠) = √2𝑠 − 1

𝑡 1
(c) ℎ(𝑡) = 2 (d) 𝑚(𝑟) =
𝑡 −3𝑡−10 𝑟−2

Solution

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.

∵ 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial, therefore, the domain is all real numbers (ℝ).

(b) 𝑔(𝑠) = √2𝑠 − 1.

𝑔(𝑠) is defined if

2𝑠 − 1 ≥ 0
1
⇒𝑠≥
2
1
⇒ 𝐷𝑔 = [ , ∞) .
2

𝑡
(c) ℎ(𝑡) = .
𝑡 2 −3𝑡−10

ℎ(𝑡) is defined for all real number except the zeros of the denominator.

𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 − 10 = 0
⇒ (𝑡 − 5)(𝑡 + 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑡 = 5 or 𝑡 = −2
∴ 𝐷ℎ = ℝ ∖ {−2,5} = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2,5) ∪ (5, ∞).

1
(d) 𝑚(𝑟) =
𝑟−2

𝑚(𝑟) is defined for all real number except the zeros of the denominator.

𝑟−2=0⇒𝑟 =2

∴ 𝐷𝑚 = ℝ ∖ {2} = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).

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Checkpoint 4

Find the domain of each of the following functions.

3𝑥
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 (b) 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −4
√3𝑥+12
(c) ℎ(𝑡) = √4 − 𝑡 (d) 𝐹(𝑥) =
𝑥−5

Solution

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 1.1.6.2 Range of a Function from a graph

Definition 11: Definition of Range

The range of a function is the set of all output values that are possible
for the given domain of the function.

Example 10

Find the range of each function shown the following graphs.

Solution

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1

It is clear that

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Thus the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is [1, ∞).

1
(b) 𝑦 =
𝑥−2

1
We can see from the graph above that the range of 𝑦 = is ℝ\{0} =
𝑥−2

(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

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(c) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 2 − 1.

It is clear that √𝑥 2 − 1 ≥ 0 for all 𝑥.

Thus, the range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 2 − 1 is [0, ∞).

1.1.6.3 Obtaining a function from an equation

Definition 12: Obtaining a function from an equation

To obtain a function 𝑓 of 𝑥 from an equation that involve 𝑥 and 𝑦, follow

the next steps:

Step 1: Solve the equation for 𝑦.

Step 2: Replace 𝑦 with 𝑓(𝑥).

Example 11

Use the notation 𝑓(𝑥) to express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥.

𝑥
(a) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 (b) =1
𝑦−1

Solution

(a) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2

⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 2
𝑥
(b) =1 (Note that 𝑥 ≠ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 1.)
𝑦−1

⇒𝑦−1=𝑥 ⇒𝑦 =𝑥+1

⇒ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ 0

Note that 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 1, ∀𝑥 ≠ 0.

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Checkpoint 5

Use the notation 𝑓(𝑥) to express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥.

𝑥 2 +𝑦
(a) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 2 (b) =𝑥
2𝑦−3

Solution

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1.1.7Determining Whether Relations Are Functions.
1.1.7.1 Vertical Line Test

The definition of a function as a set of ordered pairs in which no two

ordered pairs that have the same first coordinate have different second
coordinates implies that any vertical line intersects the graph of a
function at no more than one point.

This is known as the vertical line test.

Definition 13: The Vertical Line Test for Functions

A graph is the graph of a function if and only if no vertical line intersects

the graph at more than one point.

Example 12

Using the Vertical Line Test, state whether the graph is the graph of a function.
(a) (b)

Solution

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(a)

This graph (Black) is not the graph of a function because some vertical

lines (Red) intersect the graph in more than one point (A, B and C).

(b)

This graph (Black) is the graph of a function because every vertical line

(Red) intersects the graph in at most one point (A).

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Checkpoint 6

Find the domain and range of the following relations.

Then use the Vertical Line, to state whether the graph is the graph of a
function.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

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Page 34 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
Determine a Domain Value Given a Range Value
Example 13

Find the values of 𝑎 in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 4 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 2.

Solution

Checkpoint 7

find the value or values of 𝑎 in the domain of 𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) equals the given
number.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2; 𝑓(𝑎) = 10 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 16; 𝑓(𝑎) = −2

Solution

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Note:
It may be that, for a given number 𝑏, there is no number in the domain of
𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Example 14

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3, find a value in the domain of 𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 2.

Solution

𝑓 (𝑎) = 3

𝑎2 + 3 = 2 Replace f(a) with 𝑎2 + 3

𝑎2 = −1 Solve for 𝑎

√𝑎2 = √−1

𝑎 = ±𝑖

The values of 𝑎 are complex numbers and not in the domain of 𝑓. Note

from the graph in the Figure above that the horizontal line through (0,2)

does not intersect the graph as it did in the previous Example.

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1.1.8Zeroes of a Function and Intercepts

• A problem in the previous Example is a special interest is

determining the values in the domain of a function 𝑓 for which
𝑓(𝑎) = 0.

• A value 𝑎 in the domain of a function 𝑓 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 is called a

zero of 𝑓.

✓ For instance, let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4. When 𝑥 = 2 , we have

𝑓(2) = 2(2) − 4 = 0.

Because 𝑓 (2) = 0,
then 2 is a zero of 𝑓.

✓ Here is another example:

Suppose 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15.
Then

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15
𝑔(3) = 32 + 2(3) − 15 𝑔(−5) = (−5)2 + 2(−5) − 15
𝑔(3) = 0 𝑔(−5) = 0
3 is a zero of 𝑔. −5 is a zero of 𝑔.

In this case, there are two values in the domain of 𝑔, −5 and 3 , for
which 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

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Example 15

Find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3.

Solution

Checkpoint 8

Find the zeros of 𝑓.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5

Solution

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1.1.9Intercepts
Any point that has an 𝑥 - or a 𝑦-coordinate of zero is called an intercept of
the graph of an equation because it is at these points that the graph
intersects the 𝑥 - or the 𝑦-axis.

Definition 14: Definition of 𝒙-Intercepts and 𝒚-Intercepts

• If (𝑥1 , 0) satisfies an equation, then the point (𝑥1 , 0) is called an 𝑥

intercept of the graph of the equation.
• If (0, 𝑦1 ) satisfies an equation, then the point (0, 𝑦1 ) is called a 𝑦-
intercept of the graph of the equation.
• To find the 𝑥-intercepts of the graph of an equation, let 𝑦 = 0 and solve
the equation for 𝑥.
• To find the 𝑦-intercepts of the graph of an equation, let 𝑥 = 0 and solve
the equation for 𝑦.

Example 16

Find the 𝑥 - and 𝑦-intercepts of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3.

Solution

Algebraic Solution

To find the 𝑦-intercept, let 𝑥 = 0 and solve for 𝑦.

𝑦 = 02 − 2(0) − 3 = −3

To find the 𝑥-intercepts, let 𝑦 = 0 and solve for 𝑥.

0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
0 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)
(𝑥 − 3) = 0 or (𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −1

Page 39 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Because 𝑦 = −3 when 𝑥 = 0, (0, −3) is a 𝑦-intercept. Because 𝑥 = 3 or

−1 when 𝑦 = 0, (3,0) and (−1,0) are 𝑥-intercepts. The Figure below

confirms that these three points are intercepts.

Visualize the Solution

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 is shown below. Observe that the graph

intersects the 𝑥-axis at (−1,0) and (3,0), the 𝑥-intercepts. The graph also

intersects the 𝑦-axis at (0, −3), the 𝑦-intercept.

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1.1.10 Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions
➢ Consider the graph in the Figure below.
➢ As a point on the graph moves from left to right,
✓ this graph falls for values of −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0,
✓ remains the same height from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2,
✓ and rises for values of 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.

The function represented by the graph is said to be decreasing on the

interval [−2,0], constant on the interval [0,2], and increasing on the
interval [2,4].

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Definition 15: Definition of Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions

If 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are elements of an interval 𝐼 that is a subset of the domain

of a function 𝑓, then

▪ 𝑓 is increasing on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 .

▪ 𝑓 is decreasing on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 .
▪ 𝑓 is constant on 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) for all 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 .

Example 17

In each graph below, determine all intervals where 𝑓 is increasing or decreasing.

Solution

Page 42 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

LEFT GRAPH:

𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, −1] and [1,3]

𝑓 is increasing on [−1,1] and [3, ∞)

RIGHT GRAPH:

𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, −1).

𝑓 is constant on [−1,1) and [2,4].

𝑓 is increasing on [1,2] and [4, ∞).

Checkpoint 9

State the intervals on which the given function is increasing, decreasing, or

constant.

Solution

Page 43 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Applications of Functions
Example 18

An open box is to be made from a square piece of cardboard that measures

40 inches on each side.

(a) Express the volume 𝑉 of the box as a function of 𝑥.

(b) Determine the domain of 𝑉.

Solution

To construct the box, squares that measure 𝑥 inches on each side are cut

from each corner of the cardboard as shown in the Figure below.

(a) The length 𝑙 of the box is 40 − 2𝑥.

The width 𝑤 is also 40 − 2𝑥. The height of the box is 𝑥. The volume 𝑉

of a box is the product of its length, its width, and its height. Thus

𝑉 = (40 − 2𝑥)2 𝑥

(b) The squares that are cut from each corner require 𝑥 to be larger than

0 inches but less than 20 inches. Thus, the domain is {𝑥 ∣ 0 < 𝑥 < 20}.

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Checkpoint 10

A triangle is bounded by the 𝑥 - and 𝑦-axes and must pass through 𝑃(2,2), as
shown below.

(a) Find the area of the triangle as a function of 𝑥. (Hint: Let 𝐶 be the point (0,2) and
𝐷 be the point (2,0). Use the fact that 𝐴𝐶𝑃 and 𝑃𝐷𝐵 are similar triangles.)
(b) What is the domain of the function you found in (a)?

Solution

Page 45 of 60 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 Calculus 1 (Math 105)

1.1 Functions
Part Two

Page 1 of 16 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2 Even Functions and Odd Functions
1.3 Common functions

Page 2 of 16 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2 Even Functions and Odd Functions
The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic symmetry
properties.

Definition 1:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is an
even function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥),
odd function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥),
for every 𝑥 in the function's domain.

Note:

✓ The names even and odd come from powers of 𝑥. If 𝑦 is an even

power of 𝑥, as in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 , it is an even function of 𝑥 because
(−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 and (−𝑥)4 = 𝑥 4 .

✓ If 𝑦 is an odd power of 𝑥, as in 𝑦 = 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , it is an odd function

of 𝑥 because (−𝑥)1 = −𝑥 and (−𝑥)3 = −𝑥 3 .

✓ The graph of an even function is symmetric about the 𝒚-axis. Since

𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph if and only if the point
(−𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph (See the Figure (a) below).

✓ A reflection across the 𝒚-axis leaves the graph unchanged.

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 ✓ The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

✓ Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph if and only if the
point (−𝑥, −𝑦) lies on the graph (See the Figure (b) below).

✓ Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about the origin if a rotation of

180∘ about the origin leaves the graph unchanged.

✓ Notice that the definitions imply that both 𝑥 and −𝑥 must be in the
domain of 𝑓.

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Example 1

Say whether the function is even, odd, or neither. Give reasons for your
answer.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 (d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1

Solution

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is Even function: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 =𝑓(𝑥 ), for all 𝑥; (symmetry about 𝑦-axis).

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is Even function: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥)2 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ), for all 𝑥; (symmetry about 𝑦-axis).

(Figure (a) below)

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(c) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is Odd function because

𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 = −𝑓 (𝑥 ), for all 𝑥; (symmetry about the origin).

(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is Not odd: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = −𝑥 + 1, but − 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −𝑥 − 1. The two are not equal.

And it is Not even: because

𝑓(−𝑥 ) = (−𝑥 ) + 1 ≠ 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 (Figure 1.13b).

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1.4 Common functions
A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in
calculus. We identify and briefly describe them here.

• Piecewise-Defined Functions
✓ Sometimes a function is described in pieces by using different formulas
on different parts of its domain.
✓ One example is the absolute value function whose graph is given in the
Figure 1.8.
✓ The right-hand side of the equation means that the function equals 𝑥 if
𝑥 ≥ 0, and equals −𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0.
✓ Piecewise-defined functions often arise when real-world data are
modeled.

Here are some other examples.

Example 2

−𝑥, 𝑥<0 First formula

𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 2 , 0≤𝑥≤1 Second formula
1, 𝑥>1 Third formula

✓ The function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is defined on the entire real line but has values
given by different formulas, depending on the position of 𝑥.

First Formula: The values of 𝑓 are given by 𝑦 = −𝑥 when 𝑥 < 0,

Second formula: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 when 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1,

Third formula: 𝑦 = 1 when 𝑥 > 1.

✓ The function, however, is just one function whose domain is the entire
set of real numbers (See the Figure below).

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 • Linear Functions

Definition 2:

A function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, for constants 𝑚 and 𝑏, is called a

linear function.

✓ Figure (a) below shows an array of lines 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 where 𝑏 = 0, so

these lines pass through the origin.
✓ The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑏 = 0 is called the identity
function.
✓ Constant functions result when the slope 𝑚 = 0 (Figure (b)).
✓ A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes through
the origin is called a proportionality relationship.

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Definition 3:

Two variables 𝑦 and 𝑥 are proportional (to one another) if one is always a
constant multiple of the other; that is, if 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 for some nonzero constant
𝑘.

If the variable 𝑦 is proportional to the reciprocal 1/𝑥, then sometimes it is

said that 𝑦 is inversely proportional to 𝑥 (because 1/𝑥 is the multiplicative
inverse of 𝑥 ).

• Power Functions

Definition 4:

A function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.

There are several important cases to consider.

Case I: 𝑎 = 𝑛, a positive integer.

✓ The graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , for 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4,5, are displayed in the Figure

below.
✓ These functions are defined for all real values of 𝑥.
✓ Notice that as the power 𝑛 gets larger, the curves tend to flatten
toward the 𝑥-axis on the interval (−1,1),
✓ and to rise more steeply for |𝑥| > 1.
✓ Each curve passes through the point (1,1) and through the origin.
✓ The graphs of functions with even powers are symmetric about the
𝑦-axis; those with odd powers are symmetric about the origin.
✓ The even-powered functions are decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0]
and increasing on [0, ∞);
✓ the odd-powered functions are increasing over the entire real line
(−∞, ∞).

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Case II: 𝑎 = −1 or 𝑎 = −2
1 1
✓ The graphs of the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 = and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 = are
𝑥 𝑥2

shown in the Figure below.

✓ Both functions are defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 (you can never divide by zero).
1
✓ The graph of 𝑦 = is the hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 1, which approaches the
𝑥

coordinate axes far from the origin.

1
✓ The graph of 𝑦 = also approaches the coordinate axes.
𝑥2

✓ The graph of the function 𝑓 is symmetric about the origin.

✓ 𝑓 is decreasing on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
✓ The graph of the function 𝑔 is symmetric about the 𝑦-axis.
✓ 𝑔 is increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞)

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 1 1 3 2
Case III: 𝑎 = , , , and .
2 3 2 3

1 1
✓ The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 = √𝑥 are the square root
3

and cube root functions, respectively.

✓ The domain of the square root function is [0, ∞), but the cube root
function is defined for all real 𝑥.
✓ Their graphs are displayed in the Figure below, along with the graphs
3 2 3 1 3 2 1 2
of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 . (Recall that 𝑥 = (𝑥 ) and 𝑥 = (𝑥 ) .)
2 3 2 2 3 3

• Polynomials

Definition 5:

A function 𝑝 is a polynomial if

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer and the numbers 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real

constants (called the coefficients of the polynomial).

✓ All polynomials have domain (−∞, ∞).

✓ If the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 > 0, then 𝑛 is called the degree
of the polynomial.
✓ Linear functions with 𝑚 ≠ 0 are polynomials of degree 1.
✓ Polynomials of degree 2 , usually written as 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, are
called quadratic functions.
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 ✓ Likewise, cubic functions are polynomials 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
of degree 3 .
✓ The Figure below shows the graphs of three polynomials.

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 • Rational Functions

Definition 6:

A rational function is a quotient or ratio 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥)/𝑞(𝑥), where 𝑝 and 𝑞

are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real 𝑥 for
which 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0.

✓ The graphs of several rational functions are shown in the Figure

below.
✓ The straight red lines approached by the graphs are called
asymptotes and are not part of the graphs.

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 • Trigonometric Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are reviewed in Section 1.3. The
graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in the Figure below.

• Exponential Functions
✓ Functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where the base 𝑎 > 0 is a positive
constant and 𝑎 ≠ 1, are called exponential functions.
✓ All exponential functions have domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞), so
an exponential function never assumes the value 0.
✓ We discuss exponential functions in Section 1.5. The graphs of some
exponential functions are shown in the Figure below.

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 • Logarithmic Functions
✓ These are the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, where the base 𝑎 ≠ 1 is a
positive constant.
✓ They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, and
we discuss these functions in Section 1.6.
✓ The Figure below shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with
various bases.
✓ In each case the domain is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).

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 • Algebraic Functions
✓ Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
taking roots) lies within the class of algebraic functions.
✓ All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are more
complicated functions.

• Transcendental Functions

These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the trigonometric,
inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions, and many
other functions as well.

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