Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

3. SOIL COMPACTION

3.1 Introduction
Compaction of a soil is the pressing of the soil close to each other by mechanical means.
During compaction air is expelled from the void spaces. Thus compaction results in an
increase in the density of the soil. Compaction improves the engineering properties of soils.
It increases the shear strength of the soil & consequently the bearing capacity. It also
reduces the compressibility & permeability of soil.
The difference b/n compaction & consolidation is as follows even though both cause
reduction in volume.
a) Compaction is a rapid process by which a reduction in volume takes place by
mechanical means where as consolidation is a gradual process of volume reduction by
static and uniform load.
b) Compaction is the reduction in volume of a partially saturated soil mass which takes
place as a result of expulsion of air from the voids at the same water content where as
consolidation is the reduction in volume of a saturated soil mass as a result of
expulsion of water from the soil.
c) Compaction is done artificially to increase the engineering properties of the soils
whereas consolidation takes naturally when soils are subjected to static loads.
To determine the amount of compaction required in the field and the water content required,
it is necessary to perform compaction tests in the laboratory on the same soil sample. From
these tests the relationships between dry density and water content can be plotted.

3.2 Compaction in Laboratory

3.3 Standard Proctor Test
In standard proctor test a mould of internal diameter of 100 mm and height of 127.30 mm is
used. The capacity of the mould is 1000ml. The mould has a detachable base plate & a
removable collar. The soil in the mould is compacted in three layers by giving 25 blows of
the rammer, which falls through a height of 310 mm and a face diameter of 50 mm to each
equal layer. The rammer has a mass of 2 kgs and collar height is 60 mm.
Objective
To obtain the moisture content – dry density relationship for a soil and hence to determine
the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density.
Introduction
Soil compaction can be a very economical method of soil improvement, and it is often used
to make ground suitable for the foundations of roads and buildings. It is also used in the
placing of soil fills and in the construction of earth dams to ensure suitable soil properties.
The compaction is normally achieved through the input of energy into the soil by impact,
kneading, vibration or static means.

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Figure 1.

The extent of compaction depends on the moisture content of the soil and the compactive
effort used. In a compaction test the objective is to determine the optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density achievable with a given compactive effort. A plot of dry density
versus moisture content (Figure 1) indicates that compaction becomes more efficient up to a
certain moisture content, after which the efficiency decreases. The maximum dry density is
obtained at this optimum moisture content.
If the compaction process were completely efficient, it would be possible (but not
necessarily desirable) to expel all the air from the voids, in which case the dry density would
correspond to a zero-air voids state (ie. the sample would be saturated with water). Since
perfect compaction is not possible (except at high moisture contents and low dry density) the
compaction curve will always fall below the ideal or zero-air voids curve (Figure 1).
It should be noted that there are a number of standards for compaction tests, each differing
in the amount of energy input into compaction. For a given soil the different tests will
produce different maximum dry densities and optimum moisture contents (i.e. these
parameters are NOT soil properties). The maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content are only relevant for a specified compaction procedure which should be stated when
presenting the results.
In earthworks it is common to specify a dry density within a certain percentage of the
maximum determined from a specified compaction test. For this to be a sensible procedure
it is important that the compactive effort used in the laboratory is comparable to that
supplied by the field equipment.
Procedure
About 2.5 kg of the soil is provided that it will pass through a No. 4 sieve. The soil sample
should be mixed with water and placed in the standard mould provided in 3 approximately
equal layers. Each layer is to be compacted with 25 blows from a special compaction
hammer. When the mould is full the weight of soil should be measured and then two

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moisture content samples should be taken for drying in the oven. The volume of the mould
is approximately 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3) and should be checked by measurements of cylinder
height and diameter. The remaining soil should be removed from the mould, broken down
until it will again pass a No. 4 sieve (determine visually), remixed with more water added,
and then re-compacted into the mould.
The compaction test should be repeated five times with the assumed moisture content used
in calculations to ensure that the dry density versus moisture content plot has points on both
sides of the optimum moisture content. This assumed dry density and moisture content plot
that must be produced during the session, will later be replaced in the report by a plot with
the calculations based upon the average of the moisture contents measured with the sample
tins.
The two groups performing the experiment will use different compaction hammer weights.
To complete the report you will need to use the dry density versus moisture content data for
both hammer weights.

Zero-air-voids
Max.dry line (100%
density saturation)

Dry
density

Optimum m/c

Moisture Content

Compaction Test Procedure

Fig.1
1. Weigh the empty mould (with the base but without the collar)
2. Break soil lumps and sieve the soil through a No. 4 sieve
3. Add the required amount of water to the soil
4. Form a 50 to 75 mm layer of soil in the mould, and gently press the soil to smooth
its surface
5. Compact the soil with 25 evenly distributed full height blows of the hammer.
6. Repeat the procedure with a second and third layer. After the compaction of the
third layer, the surface of the soil must be slightly above the top rim of the mould.

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7. Remove the collar and trim off the soil above the top of the mould.
8. Weigh the mould and the sample
9. Remove the soil from the mould and obtain representative samples for moisture
content determinations.
10. Break the removed soil from the mould, remix with the original sample, and raise
its water content by 2 – 3%.
11. Keep repeating the compaction process until 5 runs have been made.

Calculations

1. The dry unit weight γd can be computed from

t
d 
1 w

Where: γt = wet unit weight of the soil

= W (g)  9.81 (kN/m3)

V (cm3 )

W = mass of the wet compacted soil sample

V = volume of soil

w = moisture content of the compacted soil

w = Ww = W  Ws
Ws Ws

Ws = mass of the dry soil sample

Ww = mass of water

2. To plot the zero air void curve

Gγ w
γd 
1  (wG/S)

Where: G = specific gravity of the soil (assume G =2.70)

γw = unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3 (or density 1.0 g/cm3)

S = degree of saturation

For zero-air-voids or 100% saturation, S = 1.

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Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

3. To calculate the amount of water to be added to the soil assume the initial moisture
content is 1.5%, and the mass of the soil is 2500g. Then

2500  Ws
1.5% 
Ws

This may be solved for the mass of dry soil Ws which we take to remain constant. Recalling
that the assumed initial weight of water in the soil Ww = 0.015 Ws and that Ws is constant, if
the first required water content is 10%, the extra mass of water required Ww can be
calculated

Ww
10% - 1.5%   0.085
Ws

Subsequent water to be added to change the moisture content by 3% can be found from

Ww
3%   0.03
Ws

MOISTURE CONTENT

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
Container No.
Container & Wet soil (g)
Container & Dry soil (g)
Container (g)
Water Ww (g)
Dry soil Ws (g)
Moisture content (%)

DRY DENSITY

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
Mass of Mould & Compacted soil (g)
Mass of Mould (g)
Mass of Compacted Soil (g)
Wet density ρt (g/cm3) or (t/m3)
Dry Density ρd (g/cm3) or (t/m3)

To complete the laboratory session each student must show the demonstrator:

 A completed compaction curve. This will require the use of the nominal moisture
contents.
 On the plot with the compaction curve show the no-air-voids (NAV) line
 A comment on the significance of any point plotting above the NAV line
 The maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content

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Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

Report Format

Your report should include the following:

1. A description of the soil.

2. A sample of the calculations used to determine dry density and moisture content.
3. A plot showing the variations of dry density with moisture content for both hammer
weights (draw both sets of data on the same graph).
4. On the same plot draw the zero-air voids line for this soil.
5. The optimum moisture contents and maximum dry densities.
6. A comment on the effects of increasing compactive effort observed in the
experiment.
7. Discussion of the benefits of increasing compactive effort in engineering practice.
Are there any disadvantages?
8. Calculate the degree of saturation of the soil at the optimum moisture content.

2.75
Modified
Standard
2.50 Zero air voids
Dry density (t/m )
3

2.25

Standard Proctor Test

2.00
Dry density Vs Moisture content

1.75

1.50
0 5 10 15 20 25
Moisture content (%)

3.4 Compaction Curve

A compaction curve is a curve obtained from the compaction test results. It is a curve
obtained by plotting the water content as abscissa versus the corresponding dry density as
ordinate for each test.

It was observed that the dry density initially increases with an increase in moisture content
till the d (max) is attained. But with further increase in water content, the d decreases. The
water content that corresponds to the d (max) is known as optimum moisture content
(OMC).

When the water content is lower than the optimum, the soil will be stiff & has much void
spaces resulting in low dry density. Also at a water content higher than the optimum, the
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Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

water occupies more space that is occupied by solid particles and results in reduction of dry
density.

Any compaction methods cannot remove all the air voids.

Thus the soil will never become fully saturated.

G.w G.w
d   d 
1 e 1  ( wG / s)

The theoretical maximum density, which is obtained at 100 % saturation, can be determined
for any value of w & known G. The hidden line in the figure below indicated the theoretical
maximum dry density.

Figure: Moisture-dry unit weight relationship

The compaction in the field should be approximately similar to the compaction in the
laboratory test. The water content at which the soil is compacted in the field is controlled by
the value of optimum moisture content determined in the laboratory. The O, M, C. obtained
in laboratory is used as control criterion for compaction in the field. The amount of
compaction in the field should be approximately equal to that in the laboratory.

3.5 Factors Affecting Compaction:

The increase in dry density of the soil achieved as a result of compaction depends upon the
following factors.
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Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

A) Water content: At water content lower than O. M. C, the soil is stiff and is not
workable offering resistance to compaction. As the water content increases, the
particles become lubricated and are easier to expel air from the voids. Thus the dry
density increases till the optimum amount of water is applied. With further increase in
moisture content the water starts to occupy more pore spaces and results in an increase
of the total voids (air and water). This results in an increase in the total volume of the
soil. Hence this in turn will bring about reduction in the dry density of soil.
B) Amount of Compaction:-At moisture content less than the optimum, increasing the
compactive effort brings about an increase in the dry density. But at water content
more than the optimum, the volume of air voids is almost constant & thus increasing
the compactive effort has no effect on the dry density. Even at moisture content less
than the optimum, the dry density will not go on increasing with an increase in
compactive effort. With an increase in compaction the increase in dry becomes
smaller and smaller and finally no change in dry will be observed with an increase in
compactive effort.
C) Type of Soil: -Generally coarse grained soils can be compacted to a higher dry density
than fine gained soils for the same compaction effort. When some fines are added to
the coarse grained soils to file the voids, the maximum dry density further increases,
but if the amount of fines is too much, more than required to fill the voids, it results in
reduction of dry density, well graded soils can attain higher dry density then poorly
graded soils. High plasticity clays attain much less dry density than low plasticity
clays for the some completive effort.

Fig. Compaction curves for different soils

D) Method of compaction: the increase in dry density for a given compaction effort
depends also on method of compaction i-e whether the method of compaction utilizes
kneading action, static action or dynamic.

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Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

Fig. Compaction curves for different compacting effect.

3.6 Relative compaction

This is the ratio of the dry density achieved in the field to the maximum dry density obtained
from the standard proctor test.

i.e. relative compaction = dry density in the field X 100%

dry density (max) in laboratory

- About 95% relative compaction can be attained by sheep foot rollers or pneumatic
tyred rollers for cohesive soils.
- For cohesionless soils, relative compaction of about 100 % can be achieved using
pneumatic typed rollers & vibratory rollers.

3.7 Control of Compaction

During compaction in the field, it is necessary to check the dry density and the water content
in order to get proper results. Compaction can be controlled by measuring the dry density
and the water content of the compacted soil. The sample of the compacted soil should be
taken and the dry density is determined. For the same sample the water content is also
determined. If the water content is less than the optimum moisture content (OMC) some
more water is added and compacted again. When OMC is attained and a dry density nearly
maximum dry density is obtained, the compaction is satisfactory.

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Soil Mechanics I Soil Compaction

Example: - The in-situ density of a soil is to be determined by the proctor method. The
volume of the mould is 1000 ml. Its weight when empty is 1864 gm and when filled with the
soil is 3646 gm. The soil has G = 2.67, S = 58 % & the in-situ void ratio is found to be 0.85,
determine
a) The in-situ dry density of the soil
b) The theoretical dry density of the soil for zero air voids.

3.8 Properties of Soils

The physical properties have a direct effect on the ease or difficulty of handling earth, the
selection of equipment, and the production rates of the equipment.

3.9 Swell and Shrinkage

Because of the changes in volume and density when the earth is excavated, hauled, placed
and compacted, it is necessary to specify whether the volume is measured in its original
position, in the loose condition, or in the fill after compaction.

The bank-measure volume is the volume of the earth measured in the borrow pit, trench,
canal, or cut prior to loosening. This is the volume on which payment usually is based.

The loose-measure volume is the volume of the earth after it has been removed from its
natural position and deposited in trucks scrapers, or spoil piles.

The compact volume, or fill volume, is the volume of the earth after it has been placed in a
fill, such as a dam or road, and compacted. For projects requiring compacted earth fill the
volume in the fill may be used as the basis of payment.

The increase in volume of earth as a result of loosening is defined as swell. It is expressed as

a percent of the original undisturbed volume.

The reduction in volume of earth from the bank measure volume due to compaction is
defined as shrinkage. It is expressed as a percent of the original undisturbed bed volume.

For any given class of earth the percent of shrinkage will vary with the extent and degree of
compaction and the amount of moisture present during compaction.
The percent swell and shrinkage may be determined as follows, respectively.
B 
S w    1 100%
L 
 B
S h  1   100%
 C
Where, Sw=% swell
Sh= % Shrinkage.
B = density of undisturbed earth
L= density of loose earth
C = density of compacted earth

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Example:

A given soil weighs 17.3 KN in situ 15.1 KN 3 when loose and 18.5KN/m3 when
m3 m
compacted in a fill. Determine the percent swell and shrinkage for the soil.

Solution

B  17.3 KN
m3
L  15.1 KN
m3
C  18.5 KN 3
m

B   17.3 
Swell S w    1100    1  100  14.6%
L   15.1 

 B  17.3 
Shrinkage Sh  1    100  1    100  6.5%
 C  18.5 

3.10 Soil Stabilization

In engineering construction, stabilization is most often referred to compaction of soil

preceded by the addition and mixing of an inexpensive admixture termed a stabilization
agent, which alters the chemical make up of the soil, resulting in a more stable material.

Stabilization prevents the soil from differential expansion and shrinkage due to changes in
moisture content. Also soil movement and rutting under moving wheel loads is prevented.

Stabilization may be applied in place to a soil in its natural position or as it is placed in a fill.
Also, stabilization may be applied in a plant and then transported to the job site for
placement and compaction.

Methods of stabilizing soils include, but are not limited to, the following operations.

1. Blending and mixing heterogeneous soils to produce more homogeneous soils.

2. Incorporating lime or lime fly ash in to soils that are high in clay content.
3. Blending asphalt with the soil.
4. Incorporating Portland cement (with or without fly ash) in to soils.
5. Incorporating various salts in to the soil.
6. Incorporating certain chemicals in to the soil.
7. Compacting the soils after they are processed.

3.11 Blending and Mixing Soils

Heterogeneous soils in their original states, such as in a borrow pit, may be mixed during
excavation by using equipment such as a power shovel to excavate through several layers in

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one operation. When such material is placed on a fill, it may be subjected to further blending
by several passes with a disk harrow.

3.12 Stabilizing soils with lime

Soil stabilization with lime involves a chemical process. Unless stabilized, clay soils usually
become very soft when water is introduced.

Lime, in its hydrated form [Ca (OH)2] , will rapidly cause cation exchange and flocculation
/agglomeration, provided it is intimately mixed with the soil. The clay type soil will then
behave much more like a silt type soil.

3.13 Lime fly ash stabilization

Fly ash is a by product in the production of electricity using coal. The resulting fly ash is
extremely fine in size (often finer than Portland cement) and contains the silicates and
aluminates necessary to combine with the lime in the soil stabilization. Laboratory and field
results indicate that fly ash, of suitable quality; can replace a portion of the lime necessary to
stabilize a clay type soil.

3.14 Asphalt Soil stabilization

When asphalts, such as an emulsion or a cut back, are mixed with granular soil, usually in
amount of 5 to 7 percent of the volume of the soil, this treatment will produce a much more
durable and stable soil.

The moisture content of the soil must be low at the time the asphalt is added. Also, it is
necessary to allow the volatile oils to evaporate from the bitumen before finishing and
rolling the material.

3.15 Cement Soil Stabilization

The use of Portland cement has been found to be effective for soils predominantly granular
with only minor amounts of clay particles. A good rule of thumb is that soils with PI less
than about 10 are likely candidates for this type of stabilization.

The terms “soil cement” and “cement treated base” are often used interchangeably, and
generally describe this type of stabilization. The amount of cement in the soil is usually 5 to
7 percent by dry weight of the soil. Like lime stabilization, fly ash can be effectively utilized
to replace a portion of the Portland cement in soil cement. Replacement percentages on an
equal weight basis or on a 1.25: 1.0 fly ash/Portland cement replacement basis have been
used.

3.16 Soil Compaction

Soil for use as a sub grade under a pavement structure or other foundation is strengthened by
compaction at optimum moisture. Typically, a uniform layer, or lift, of from 4 to 12in. of
soil is compacted by means of several passes of heavy mechanized compaction equipment.

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3.17 Types of Compacting Equipment

Compaction is attained by applying energy to a soil by one or more of the following

methods:

1. Kneading action 4. Impact

2. Static weight 5. Explosives

3. Vibration

Many types of compacting equipment are available, including the following:

1. Tamping rollers

2. Smooth-wheel rollers

3. Pneumatic-tired rollers

4. Vibrating rollers, including tamping, smooth wheel, and pneumatic

5. Self-propelled vibrating plates and/or shoes

6. Manually propelled vibrating plates.

7. Manually propelled compactors

8. Vibratory compactors for deep sand

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3.18 Types of Equipment Suited For Compacting Soils

Maximum Density Maximum
Type
Soil best suited for effect in gained in weight,
compactor
loose lift, in. lift tons
Clay, silty clay, gravel Nearly
Sheep’s foot 7 to 12 20
with clay binder uniform
Sandy silts, most
Steel tandem
granular material with 4 to 8 Average* 16
two-axle
some clay binder
Steel tandem
Same as above 4 to 8 Average* 20
three-axle
Steel three- Granular or granular- Average*
4 to 8 20
wheel plastic material to uniform
Pneumatic, Sandy silts, Sandy
small-tire clays, gravely sand Average*
4 to 8 12
and clays with few to uniform
fines
Pneumatic,
All types ? to 24 Uniform 50
large-tire
Sand, silty sands, silty
Vibratory 3 to 6 Uniform 30
gravels
Combinations All 3 to 6 Uniform 20

3.19 Tamping rollers

These are sheep’s-foot type or modifications thereof. On the outer surface of the hollow
steel drum there are a number of welded projecting steel feet. A unit may consist of one or
several drums mounted on one or more horizontal axles. The weight of a drum may be
varied by adding water or sand to produce unit pressures under the feet up to 750 psi or
more.

As a tamping roller moves over the surface, the feet penetrate the soil to produce a kneading
action and a pressure to mix and compact the soil from the bottom to the top of the layer.

The specifications may prescribe one of the following as a means of attaining the desired
compaction:

(i) The number of passes of a roller, producing a specified unit pressure under the feet, over
each layer of the soil.

(ii) Repeated passes of a roller, producing a specified unit pressure under the feet, over each
layer of soil until the penetration of the feet does not exceed a stated depth.

(iii) Repeated passes of a roller over each layer until the soil is compacted to a specified
density. Sheep’s-foot rollers are quite effective in compacting clays and mixtures of
sand and clay. However, they cannot compact granular soils such as sand gravel. Also
the depth of a layer of soil to be compacted is limited to approximately the length of the
feet.

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3.20 Modified tamping rollers

It is a modified tamping roller designed as a grid roller. When this roller is ballasted with
concrete blocks, it is capable of producing very high soil pressures, and when it is used to
compact soil containing rocks, the high concentration of pressure on rocks projecting above
the surface of the soil is effective in shattering the rocks and forcing the broken pieces into
the soil to produce a relatively smooth surface.

3.21 Smooth-wheel rollers

Classification can be based on type or weight.

The rollers are steel drums, which may be ballasted with water or sand to increase the
weights.

Specifications governing these rollers may be of two types, one type simply designating the
weight, and the other type designating the weight per linear inch of roll.

When compacting cohesive soils, these rollers tend to form a crust over the surface, which
may prevent adequate compaction in the lower portions of a lift. However these rollers are
effective in compacting granular soils, such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone, and they are
also effective in smoothing surfaces of soils that have been compacted by tamping rollers.

3.22 Pneumatic-tired rollers

These rollers apply the principle of kneading action to effect compaction below the surface.

The small-tired units usually have two tandem axles with four to nine tires on each axle.
Complete coverage of the surface is ensured as the rear wheels are spaced to travel over the
surfaces between the front wheels. Usually the weight of a unit may be varied by adding
ballast to suit the material being compacted.

Large-tired rollers utilize two or more big earth-moving tires on a single axle. Because of
heavy loads and high tire pressures, they are capable of compacting all types of soils to
greater depths. These units are frequently used to proof roll sub grades and bases on airfields
and earth-fill dams.

Because of the variation of the contact area between a tire and the ground surface, a more
definitive method of designating the compacting ability is to specify the gross weight, the
number and sizes of tires, and the tire inflation pressure.

3.23 Pneumatic-tire rollers with variable inflation pressures

Several manufacturers produce rollers that are equipped to permit the operator to vary the
tire pressure without stopping the machine. The first passes are made with relatively low tire
pressures. As the soil is compacted, the tire pressure is increased to suit the particular
conditions of the soil.

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3.24 Vibrating compactors

Certain type of soils such as sand, gravel, and relatively large stones respond quite well to
compaction produced by a combination of pressure and vibration. When these material are
vibrated, the particles shift their position and nestle more closely with adjacent particles to
increase the density of the mass.

Equipments include:

i. Vibrating sheep’s-foot rollers

ii. Vibrating steel-drum rollers
iii. Vibrating pneumatic-tired rollers
iv. Vibrating plates or shoes

Vibrating sheep’s-foot, steel-drum, pad-type, and pneumatic-tired rollers are actuated by

separate engines mounted on the rollers, or in some cases by hydraulic drives which rotate
horizontal shafts on which one or more eccentric weights are mounted.

In general, better compaction efficiencies and economy are obtained by moving vibrating
compactors at relatively slow speeds, 1.5 to 2.5 mph. slow speeds permit a greater flow of
vibratory energy into the soil.

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