Profiles of the free surface

River hydraulics for flood risk evaluation

CERM Program at Polo Regionale di Lecco

Dr. Alessio Radice

Outline of lectures on theory of profiles 2

• Theory of GVF (gradually varied flow)

• Non-linear flows
• Theory of SVF (spatially varied flow)

These notes contain the fundamentals of the theory of open-channel flow profiles in the conditions
mentioned in the bullet list at the top of the slide. The notes aim at being a synthetic reference and do not
explain all the details, for which study on a book is recommended.

1
 GVF 3

Hypotheses for 1-D modelling of open-channel flow

• Gradually Varied Flow (GVF): trajectories are sensibly linear, no significant curvature;

• hydrostatic
y pressure
p distribution: this is actuallyy a consequence
q of the previous
p one

• small slope: the cross sections can be assumed as vertical and thus the pressure distribution can be
considered as hydrostatic on the cross sections;

• uncompressible fluid: ρ = const, with ρ being water density;

• fully turbulent flow (used for modelling distributed head losses).

GVF 4

Definitions/1
• d [L]: water depth

• Q [L3/T] : discharge
B(d)
• B [L]: top width

• b [L]: width at h height

• A [L2]: flow area

d
• Pw [L]: wetted perimeter
h
• RH = A/Pw [L]: hydraulic radius Pw(d)
• DH = 4RH [L]: hydraulic diameter

• V = Q/A [L/T]: mean velocity

• h [L]: elevation within the section

d
• Σ = ∫ ρg (d − h )bdh + ρQV [MLT-2]: hydrodynamic force (pressure and momentum contributions)
0

2
 GVF 5

Definitions/2
• z [L]: elevation

• zbed [L]: bed elevation

• S 0 = − ∂z 0 [-]: longitudinal bed slope

∂s V 2
V2
2 2
• H = z + p + V = z bed + d + V [L]: total head 2g 2g
ρg 2g 2g
V2
• E = H − z bed = d + [L]: specific energy p
2g
∂H ρg
• Sf = − [-]: friction slope E
∂s d

The first expression of H is valid for a H

generic fluid particle (black circle). The
z bed
second one is referred to the current. z
Note that H and E correspond to the
SAME physical energy level. Only the
z =0
base point is different.

GVF 6

Saint Venant equations

Balance of mass and equilibrium for a control volume of length ds over a time interval of duration
dt yields the continuity equation and the momentum equation:

⎧ ∂Q ∂A
⎪⎪ ∂s + ∂t = 0
⎨
⎪ ∂V +V ∂V + g ∂d = g (S − S )
f
⎩⎪ ∂t
0
∂s ∂s

In the particular case of steady flow (no temporal variations) the equations become:
⎧ dQ
=0
⎪⎪ ds
⎨
V V dd dE
= (S 0 − S f )
⎪ d
+ =
⎩⎪ g ds ds ds

And in case of uniform flow (equilibrium between driving and resisting forces, inducing no
variability with time and space) we finally have:

⎧ dQ
⎪ =0
⎨ ds
⎪S − S = 0
⎩ 0 f

3
 GVF 7

Boundary conditions

In case of unsteady flow, we have seen that an initial condition (IC) is necessary, together with an
upstream boundary condition (BC, in general a discharge hydrograph) and a second BC that must
be upstream or downstream, depending on the nature of flow (supercritical or subcritical,
respectively).

In case of steady flow things are more simple: we have to assign the discharge value (which is
constant along the reach) and a boundary condition for the water level, upstream or downstream
depending on the nature of flow (supercritical or subcritical, respectively).

GVF 8

Characteristic depths/1
Given the definition of E, we obtain its variability with d for a constant discharge.

There is a depth (called the critical depth, dc) for which the specific energy is minimum.

We can make a similar treatment for the hydrodynamic force, obtaining again the critical depth.

d
d

dc dc

Σ
E
∂E Q 2 ∂A ∂Σ Q2
=1 − = ρgA − ρ 2 B
∂d gA 3 ∂d ∂d A
A3 Q 2 A3 Q 2
⇒ = ⇒ =
B g B g

4
 GVF 9

Supercritical and subcritical flows

When d > dc, the flow is called supercritical (velocity larger than that for critical flow).

When d < dc, the flow is called subcritical.

It is immediate to see that, considering either the specific energy or the force (we use a generic
variable X):

∂X
< 0 for supercritical flow
∂d
∂X
> 0 for subcritical flow
∂d

GVF 10

Characteristic depths/2

We have seen that if no quantity varies with the longitudinal direction, the flow is called uniform
and the momentum equation representing the process is S0 = Sf.

The depth for which this happens is called the uniform (or normal) depth, d0.

For a given discharge, Sf is a decreasing function of water depth; therefore:

d > d0 ⇒S0 > Sf

d < d0 ⇒S0 < Sf d

d0

S0 Sf

5
 GVF 11

Mild and steep channels

The critical depth is a function of the discharge. The normal flow depth is a function of the
discharge, of the bed slope (d0 increases as the bed slope decreases) and of bed roughness.

Therefore, we may have d0 > dc or d0 < dc depending on the bed slope and roughness.

The channel is mild in the first case (the uniform flow is subcritical) and steep in the second one
(the uniform flow is supercritical).

d0

dc dc
d0
bed bed

Mild channel Steep channel

GVF 12

Qualitative shape of the flow profile in prismatic channels

The momentum equation and/or the energy equation furnish the solution of the problem, yet
these equations do not have analytical solution. It is possible to make a qualitative study of the
shape of the profile of the free surface, to be used as a guidance to properly interpret the results
of numerical modeling.
It is possible to predict if the water depth will increase or decrease as water moves downstream,
by studying the sign of the function dd/ds=(S0-Sf)/(dE/dd), where, the sign of the numerator and
of denominator at the right-hand side are known from previous considerations.
The critical depth line is approached with vertical tangent. The normal depth line is approached
asymptotically. The indefinitely increasing depth of profiles M1 and S1 is approached with
horizontal free surface.

M1 S1
M2 d0
S2
dc
M3 dc S3
d0
Profiles in a mild channel bed Profiles in a steep channel
bed

6
 Hydraulic jump 13

In some cases, a transition from supercritical flow to subcritical flow may be necessary. There is
no profile realizing this condition. The latter typically takes place with a sudden rise in the water
level, accompanied by air entrainment and high turbulence. This is called the hydraulic jump and it
is p
possible to demonstrate that it ideallyy occurs in the position
p where the total hydrodynamic
y y force
of the supercritical profile and that of the subcritical profile are equal.

dc

GVF 14

Channels with variable slope/1

Bed slope in a real river is continuously variable. We may model it as a succession of reaches with
constant slope.
When the flow is everywhere subcritical or supercritical, there are no particular difficulties. The depth
achieved at the end of a reach acts as a boundary condition for the profile in the following reach.
Obviously, this has to be done downwards if the flow is supercritical or upwards if it is subcritical.

d0
M2 M1
dc
Example 1: profile in a mild reach with no
M2 downstream boundary condition (I come
from downstream in uniform flow).

dc

S2
Example 2: profile in a steep reach with
S3 no upstream boundary condition (I come
S2 from upstream in uniform flow).

7
 GVF 15

Channels with variable slope/2

We have to be careful when there is a transition from mild to steep slope or viceversa.

d0

dc M2

S2
Example 1: mildÆsteep, passage through
the critical depth at the slope change
works as an internal boundary.
dc
S1
d0

Example 2: steepÆmild, possible

M3 formation of a hydraulic jump.

Non-linear flows 16

Channels with variable bed elevation/1

A variation in the bed elevation is possible, for example, in the presence of a checkdam.

case we may model the transition assuming that the energy (H, not E!) of the flow remains
In this case,
constant along the transition.

Let us consider a mild channel.

H1 = H 2
⇒E 2 =E1 − a d
d0 a
dc 1
2
1
2
dc
a

E2 E1 E

8
 Non-linear flows 17

Channels with variable bed elevation/2

It is possible, when the step is high, that the energy of the downstream flow is not enough to enable a
water depth to be found for the point upstream.

In this case, the flow passes through the critical depth where the bed is higher. The downstream depth
will be in supercritical flow. The flow will become again subcritical with a hydraulic jump downstream of
the step.

H1 = H 2
⇒E 2 =E1 − a d
a
d0 a
dc 1
1
2’
dc 2’
a 1’
1’

E2 E1 E
E 2' E 1'

Non-linear flows 18

Channels with variable bed elevation/3

As usual, subcritical and supercritical flows behave oppositely.

As we have seen, a subcritical flow rises when the bed level lowers. In addition, it is possible to have a
transition through the critical depth if the energy is not sufficient.

A supercritical flow will lower if the bed level lowers and there will not be any problem of unsufficient
energy.

For rising bed (upwards step) a subcritical flow will lower with no problem of unsufficient energy. A
supercritical flow will instead rise, and the case of unsufficient energy will be possible.

Exercise: try to model all the cases using the same approach shown.

9
 Non-linear flows 19

Channels with variable bed elevation/4

Let us now consider the presence of a sill (therefore, a rising and a decreasing step).
If the energy is sufficient, the water elevation will follow that of the bed in supercritical flow, or will be
have an opposite trend in subcritical flow
flow.
d0
dc
Subcritical flow with d = dc
as downstream boundary
condition. I assume to have
constant depth along the sill
(reasonable if the latter is
short).
dc

d0
Supercritical flow with a
low-depth boundary
condition at the
upstream end. I again
assume constant depth
along the sill.

Non-linear flows 20

If the sill is high enough we have the transition

Channels with variable bed elevation/5 through the critical depth over the sill, which acts in
this case as a large weir.

2 Let us see how we can use this device to measure

the discharge flowing in a rectangular channel (here
only the case of subcritical flow is shown; that for
h
d0 1 supercritical flow can be easily done in the same
1 way).
dc
A3 Q 2
=
a B g
3 A Q2 V 2 V2 V2 3
rect . ⇒ =dc = 2 = ⇒E c = + = dc
B gA g g 2g 2
d B 3d c3 Q 2 Q2
rect . ⇒ = ⇒dc = 3
a B g gB 2
2
V 22 3 3 Q 2
then : h + a + = +a
2g 2 gB 2
⇒ Q = 0.385hB 2gh
dc 1
3 (I consider V2 negligible due to the high
E backwater).
E1 =E c E 2 =E 3

10
 Non-linear flows 21

Channels with variable cross section/1

A real river is generally non-prismatic. Several methods can be used to model this variability.

Non-linear flows 22

Channels with variable cross section/2

A real river is generally non-prismatic. Several methods can be used to model this variability.

Method (3) considers progressively variable sections. It is the method used by numerical codes.
Method (1) considers prismatic channels with abrupt transitions.
Method (2) considers prismatic channels with progressive transitions.

The advantage of method (3) is that is probably more similar to reality. Methods 1 and 2, instead, allow
for profile interpretation on the basis of the theory we know, provided that we analyze the local
transitions.

11
 Non-linear flows 23

Channels with variable cross section/3

Let us now consider a mild channel with an
2 abrupt contraction.

d0 1 We model the tansition assuming that the energy

remains constant along the change in width.
dc
The transition can be analyzed both in the E-d plot
(where we need two curves) and in the (Q/B)-d
plot for constant energy.
B1 I come from downstream with a certain subcritical
B2<B1 profile (for example M1); in the transition the
subcritical profile lowers (in the direction of flow).

d d Rating curve for

2 2 1 uniform flow
1
Rating curve for
critical depth
dc2
dc1

E Q /B
Q / B1 Q / B 2

Non-linear flows 24

Channels with variable cross section/4

Considering a mild channel with an abrupt expansion, we obtain the opposite: the profile rises.
In this case it is however possible that the energy of the downstream flow be not enough for the flow to
pass the
t e transition.
t a s t o In tthiss case, a ttransition
a s t o tthrough
oug tthe
e ccritical
t ca co
condition
d t o will occu
occur just upst
upstream
ea oof tthe
e
expansion (the Q/B-d plot for constant energy requires the passage through dc where Q/B is larger).

Exercise: try to analyze these cases using the usual plots.

d0
dc Case 1: energy is enough

Case 2: energy is not enough

B1
B2>B1

Obviously, the energy being enough or not for given

discharge and sections depends on the downstream
boundary condition.

12
 Non-linear flows 25

Channels with variable cross section/5

Again, subcritical and supercritical flows behave oppositely.

As we have seen, a subcritical flow rises in an expansion and lowers in a contraction. In expansions,
energy may be not enough and the transition through the critical depth is possible.

On the contrary, a supercritical flow will lower in an expansion and rise in a contraction (with possibility of
energy being not enough and a consequent transition through dc).

Exercise: try to model all the remaining cases using the same approach shown.

SVF 26

Governing equations/1
Qin
We consider cases like that depicted in the sketch, where
the discharge is not constant along the reach due to
inflow of a tributary and/or outflow through a lateral Q
structure.
t t

This flow is called Spatially Varied due to variation of

discharge along the stream direction. Qout

We set up a momentum balance of forces acting on a

control volume, including:
• Weight
• Resistance
• Inertia
• Total hydrodynamic load, upstream and downstream
• Momentum load of inflow and outflow
• Pressure load of inflow and outflow and on banks
We project the equation along the main flow direction.

13
 SVF 27

Governing equations/2
Inertia is zero because flow is steady (it is spatially varied, NOT temporally varied!).

We discard weight and resistance assuming that the reach with variable discharge is short (like
it is done for the hydraulic jump).

The pressure forces result in zero after composition.

In the end the governing equation is:

⎛ dΣ ⎞
Σ + ρq inV s ds = ρq outVds + ⎜ Σ + ds ⎟
⎝ ds ⎠

Where qin/out = dQin/out/ds, and Vs is the projection of the tributary velocity along the main
stream direction.

The continuity equation is now:

dQ
= q in − q out
ds

SVF 28

Case of increasing discharge

In case of Qout = 0 (increasing discharge), IF Vs = 0 (simplifying assumption that the tributary
is perpendicular to the main stream) the momentum equation results in

dΣ
=0
ds
Indicating that this variation of discharge takes place with a constant total hydrodynamic force.
The most suitable plane to analyze the process is that of d-Q relationship with constant Σ.

14
 SVF 29

Qin
2
Let us consider the case of increasing discharge d0
in a mild channel (subcritical flow). 1
dc

Assume we arrive from downstream in uniform,

subcritical flow. Point 1 is then given.
Q1

In point 2 water depth will be larger than in Q1+Qin

point 1 (PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION?). Then
there will be a profile of type M1 further
upstream.
d 2
1 Rating
g curve for
uniform flow

SVF 30

Qin

Let us now consider the case of increasing dc

discharge in a steep channel (supercritical flow).
2
d0
1
Arriving from upstream in uniform flow, we have
point 1, we find point 2 corresponding to an
increased water depth. Q1

Q1+Qin

2 Rating curve for

1 uniform flow

15
 SVF 31

Qin

In case of increasing discharge in a supercritical dc 1’ 2’

flow, we may encounter the condition of
“insufficient load” if the discharge of the d0
tributary is very large.
1

In this case the system will attain a new steady Q1

state after some transient during which load is
gained. In the new steady state there will be a Q1+Qin
transition through the critical depth in the
downstream section of the variable-discharge
reach (the critical depth is the depth with
maximum discharge for a given load). d 1’
The inflow will take p
place in subcritical conditions
and an hydraulic jump will be present upstream.

2’

SVF 32

Case of decreasing discharge

In case of Qin = 0 (decreasing discharge) the momentum equation results in

dΣ dQ
= − ρq outV = ρ V
ds ds

After some manipulation, it is easy to show that this variation of discharge takes place with a
constant specific energy. The most suitable plane to analyze the process is that of d-Q
relationship with constant E.
Hint for manipulation:
• Compute dΣ/ds considering that
d
d Q2
Σ = ∫ ρg (d − h )bdh + ρ
0 A
• Compute dE/ds considering that

Q2
E =d +
2gA 2
• Note that the governing equation at the top of
the slide is ρgAdE/ds=0
Q

16
 SVF 33

dc
Let us consider the case of decreasing discharge
in a steep channel (supercritical flow). d0
1

We may have decreasing discharge if, for 2

example, a weir is present in the channel bank.
Q1

Assume we arrive from upstream in uniform, Q1-Qout

supercritical flow. Point 1 is then given. Qout NOT known!

Using the plot of d-Q with constant E, we find

d
that the water depth will decrease following the
decrease of discharge
discharge.

NOTE that this case is different from that of

increasing discharge where Qin was known. In
this case, the Qout will depend, location by
location, on the depth, that is the solution. 1
Therefore Qout shall be obtained with some weir 2
equation as a part of the solution. Q

SVF 34

Let us consider now the case of decreasing d0

discharge in a mild channel (subcritical flow). 1
dc
2
This case is tricky, since on one hand we have to
move from downstream to upstream but, on the
other one, Qout is not known because it will Q1
depend on the depth along the weir.
Q1-Qout
Qout NOT known!
We first hypothesize the value of Q1-Qout, we
arrive with uniform flow from downstream, we
find point 2 based on the weir process and we
have to check that discharge at the upstream d
location of the weir is equal to Q1. If not
not, we 2 1
have to start from another hypothesis for the
value of Q1-Qout.

17
 SVF 35

In case of decreasing discharge in a subcritical

flow, we may encounter the condition of
“insufficient energy” if the weir is very long, d0
resulting in high Qout.
dc 1

2’
2
In this case the system will attain a new steady
state after some transient during which energy is 1’
gained. In the new steady state there will be a Q1
transition through the critical depth in the
upstream section of the variable-discharge reach Q1-Qout
(the critical depth is the depth with maximum
Qout NOT known!
discharge for a given energy).
An hydraulic jump will be present, that can be
either in the weir reach or downstream. d
• If the jump is downstream,
downstream things are
1
(relatively) easy: the outflow takes place
entirely in supercritical conditions (case in the
picture).
• If the jump is in the weir, we have to
hypothesize Q1-Qout, then to verify that in the
section of the jump the supercritical and
subcritical profiles also have the same Q 1’
discharge.

18