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WHY SHOULD A PILOT STUDY THE SYSTEMS OF THE AIRPLANE?
By understanding how the airplane systems work, a pilot is able to identify when
something isn’t function correctly and will be able to diagnose and correct the
problem more easily. The checklists are a great example of how a pilot utilizes
system knowledge to resolve problems with malfunctioning systems.

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HOW SHOULD A PILOT STUDY THE SYSTEMS?
The first place to begin studying the airplane systems is by understanding the basic
layout and functionality. Then to improve understanding, it is important to apply
examples of where a problem could occur in the system and how to fix it. Often the
best pilots are the ones that have a lot of experience flying an airplane because they
have encountered many emergencies/failures in flight. A student can use this
concept to study the systems in a similar way. By practicing equipment failures it is
easier to understand how to use the systems and better understand how each system
operates.

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WHAT SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY DOES THE ARCHER HAVE?
The Archer has a battery and alternator. Since the Alternator can continuously
produce power, it is considered the primary source whereas the battery has a limited
quantity of electricity it can produce and is therefore only used for starting the engine
and providing immediate assistance if the alternator fails to meet the required
demand.

Battery – 24V and 11 Amp-hours (According to the Concorde battery manufacturer)

Alternator – 28V and 70 Amps

HOW DOES ELECTRICITY TRANSFER FROM THE SOURCES TO EACH DEVICE?

A bus is a component that acts as a connecting point for the sources of electricity to
meet with the devices. In the Archer, the bus is located at the circuit breaker panel.
The circuit breakers act as a safety mechanism to ensure that each of the devices are
protected from receiving too much current. The circuit breakers are therefore
located at the beginning of the circuit for a particular device. The number on the
circuit breaker indicates the total amperage that can flow across the circuit before too
much is generated and the circuit breaker is disabled (pops out).

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AFTER COMPLETING THE PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION, THE PILOT ATTEMPTS TO START
THE ENGINE ONLY TO DISCOVER THAT THE BATTERY IS INCAPABLE OF PRODUCING
ENOUGH POWER. AFTER CALLING DISPATCH, A MECHANIC ARRIVES WITH THE
EXTERNAL POWER SOURCE. WHAT WILL THE PILOT NEED TO DO IN ORDER TO USE
THE EXTERNAL POWER TO START THE ENGINE?
The simple response is to use the External Power Start checklist. It identifies that
most of the Before Start checklist will be completed, but then a few new items are
added. All electrical switches including the battery master and alternator will be
turned off until the engine is started. Only the magnetos will be used for starting the
engine. The reason the battery should remain off while the external power source is
plugged in because the battery could impose a tremendous load on the external
source not allowing enough cranking amps. The alternator is left off while the
external power source is plugged in because after the engine starts it is imperative
the battery is turned on first to ensure it connects to the electrical system. Then the
alternator can be turned on to power the system and charge the battery. Assuming
the engine starts the POH identifies that the mechanic would unplug the external
power source and then the battery followed by the alternator can be turned on. The
pilot can then continue with the After Start checklist.

DURING THE GROUND CHECK, THE PILOT NOTICES THAT THE AMMETER READS 25
AMPS. WHILE INFLIGHT THE PILOT NOTICES THAT THE AMMETER READS 50 AMPS.
WHAT SHOULD THE PILOT DO?

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The simple answer is to complete the Electrical Overload checklist. This will include
turning off the battery master and identifying the load decrease. If the load does
decrease significantly, the cause is likely a defective battery. The checklist simply
identifies that other (non-essential) electrical equipment should be turned off. If the
load doesn’t decrease significantly, the pilot should turn off the alternator, and use
the battery as required and land as soon as practical.

WHILE IN FLIGHT THE PILOT NOTICES THAT THE “ALT INOP” LIGHT IS ILLUMINATED ON
THE ANNUNCIATOR PANEL, WHAT SHOULD THE PILOT DO?
First the pilot would want to confirm that the alternator has actually failed by simply
reading the ammeter. If the alternator has stopped functioning correctly the
ammeter should read “0” or near “0”. Assuming that is the case, the pilot would
follow the Alternator Failure checklist. The checklist identifies that the pilot would
turn the alternator off and then check or reset the circuit breaker. After doing so, the
pilot will turn the alternator on and if the annunciator extinguishes (turns off) the
problem has been resolved. if the light remains illuminated, the alternator switch
should be turned off once again and the pilot should land as soon as practical.

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Refer to Warrior disc
HOW MANY INSTRUMENTS UTILIZE THE PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM?
4 instruments use the system. They are Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, Vertical Speed
Indicator, and Mode C encoder.

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WHERE ARE THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF PITOT AND STATIC PRESSURE LOCATED?
Under the left wing of the airplane is a “pitot mast”. This pitot mast contains both
the Pitot port on the leading edge and the static port on the bottom. Additionally
there is a drain hole on the trailing edge of the pitot mast.

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HOW DOES THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR FUNCTION?

The airspeed indicator contains a diaphragm that is mechanically connected to the

indicator needle. When the diaphragm expands, the needle points to higher airspeed
values. When the diaphragm contracts, the needle points to lower airspeed values.
When it is operating correctly, the airspeed indicator is showing a measurement of
dynamic pressure. Dynamic pressure can be thought of as the pressure created
when air moves and therefore, it is correct to say that dynamic pressure is created
whenever the aircraft is flying through the air. When the aircraft is flying at a given
altitude, if the pilot flies faster, the dynamic pressure increases and causes the
diaphragm to expand further.

///Click to change the picture to an airspeed indicator showing a higher airspeed

value.

When it does this, the airspeed indicator indicates higher airspeed values. The
opposite is true if the aircraft slows down.

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WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO HAVE BOTH THE PITOT AND STATIC SOURCES PROVIDE
INPUT FOR THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR TO FUNCTION PROPERLY?

The air that enters the pitot tube is called total pressure. Total pressure is made up
of dynamic and static pressure. Both dynamic and static pressure will cause the
diaphragm to expand.

It is important to remember that the pilot is only interested in dynamic pressure so

the static pressure must be eliminated. Because it is impossible to prevent static
pressure from entering the pitot source, the static source is vented to the outside of
the diaphragm. When the pitot/static system is functioning correctly, the static
pressure entering the static source is at the same value as the static pressure entering
the pitot source. As a result the two equal pressures on opposite sides of the
diaphragm cancel each other. This leaves only the dynamic pressure to cause the
diaphragm to expand.

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HOW DOES THE ALTIMETER FUNCTION?
The Altimeter basically acts as a barometer, but instead of displaying results on a
pressure scale it depicts the altitude. An Altimeter uses the static source to compress
the aneroid wafer(s). This implies that as an airplane climbs there will be less static
pressure to contract the aneroid wafer(s) and therefore as the aneroid wafer(s)
expand the altitude depicted will become higher. A pressure sensitive altimeter
works similarly but the scale for which it measures can be adjusted using the
Kollsman Window.

//Click once to change the image on screen to indicate a higher altitude. Click again
to have the altimeter indicate a lower altitude.

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HOW DOES THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR FUNCTION?

The VSI contains a diaphragm with a mechanical linkage connected to the indicator
needle.

The inside of the diaphragm is connected to the static source without any restriction.
The outside of the diaphragm is also exposed to static pressure but through a
calibrated leak that is vented into the instrument’s case. The calibrated leak allows
the static pressure inside the instrument case to change (increase or decrease) at a
slower rate than the that occurring inside the diaphragm. The difference in pressure
is what causes the diaphragm to expand or contract. When it does, the needle moves
indicating a climb or descent rate in feet per minute.

//Click to show the diaphragm contracting identifying a climb.

When the aircraft climbs, the static pressure inside the diaphragm decreases at a
faster rate than that of the static pressure inside the instrument case. As such the
higher static pressure inside the instrument case causes the diaphragm to contract,
causing the needle to indicate a climb at a specific rate.

//Click to show the diaphragm expanding identifying a descent.

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When the aircraft descends, the static pressure inside the diaphragm increases at a
faster rate than that of the static pressure inside the instrument case. As such, the
higher static pressure inside the diaphragm causes it to expand, causing the needle to
indicate a descent at a specific rate.

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IF THE PITOT DRAIN INSIDE THE COCKPIT WAS OPENED DURING STRAIGHT AND
LEVEL FLIGHT, WHAT INDICATIONS WOULD CHANGE?
Due to the loss of pitot air pressure into the airspeed indicator, the diaphragm will
contract because the pitot pressure will escape through the drain hole. As a result
the airspeed indicator will read zero or close to it. The airspeed indicator will be the
only affected instrument.

This would be a strange occurrence for an Archer because the pitot and static drains
located in the cockpit are always closed unless the pilot pushes them open.

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WHILE FLYING STRAIGHT AND LEVEL AT 5000’, ATC INSTRUCTS THE PILOT TO
DESCEND TO 4500’. AFTER REDUCING THE POWER AND PITCH, THE PILOT NOTICES
THAT THE VSI AND ALTIMETER HAVEN’T CHANGED THEIR INDICATIONS. WHAT
COULD THE PROBLEM BE?
More than likely the aircraft has experienced a static blockage. On the Archer, this
implies that the static port on the bottom of the pitot mast and the drain hole on the
back have both become blocked.

HOW CAN THE PILOT CORRECT THIS ISSUE?

The pilot should first confirm that there is a blockage of the static system by looking
at the airspeed indicator. In this example of a descent, if the airspeed continues to
increase dramatically, this would prove that the static source is blocked. To correct
this issue, the pilot would need to open the Alternate Static Source located under the
instrument panel in front of the pilot. According to Piper, in order to mitigate the
amount of error from the Alternate Static Source, the pilot should follow the placard
and complete the following actions:
- Close all vents and windows
- Turn on the heater and defroster

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WHICH INSTRUMENTS USE THE VACUUM SYSTEM?
The Attitude Indicator as well as the Heading Indicator utilize the vacuum system to
spin the gyroscopes within each instrument. Additionally the Gyro-Suction gauge
(vacuum gauge) is connected to the system similarly to the flight instruments in order
to indicate proper suction.

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HOW DO GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS FUNCTION?

Gyroscopes are affected by two principles; rigidity in space and precession.

Rigidity in space is the principle that a gyroscope will remain in a fixed position in the
plane of rotation (not airplane) in which it is spinning. Both the attitude indicator and
the heading indicator rely on rigidity in space to function properly. To allow the
gyroscope to remain in a fixed position as the aircraft pitches, rolls, and/or yaws, it is
necessary to place the gyroscope on a set of gimbal rings. These allow the gyro to
remain in a fixed position as the aircraft pivots (pitches, rolls, and/or yaws) around
the gimbals.

Precession is the tilting or turning of a gyroscope in response to a force applied to it.

When a force is applied to a spinning gyroscope, its effect is felt 90 degrees ahead in
the direction of rotation. With regard to the attitude indicator and heading indicator,
precession can cause these instruments to display incorrect information that must be
corrected.

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HOW DOES THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR FUNCTION?

The attitude indicator has a gyroscope that rotates on a horizontal plane of rotation
and a vertical axis. The gyroscope is mounted on dual (two) gimbals which allow the
aircraft to pitch and roll within certain limits (pitch 100 – 110 degrees and bank 60 –
70 degrees) and allow the gyroscope to remain in its original fixed position. It is not
necessary to have a third gimbal for yaw since the yaw of the aircraft has no effect on
the indications that the attitude indicator is capable of showing.

HOW DOES THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR CORRECT FOR PRECESSION ERRORS?

To correct for precession errors, the attitude indicator contains four pendulous vanes
each at 90 degrees to another. When the gyroscope is aligned in a horizontal plane of
rotation, all four pendulous vanes are open. These allow the air entering the
gyroscope casing (the air that turns the gyroscope) to exit it through the normal
operating process. If/when the gyroscope is not aligned in a horizontal plane of
rotation, one of the pendulous vanes closes by gravity allowing the pendulous vane
opposite it to remain open and allow the air escaping the opening to have it’s equal
and opposite reactive force unopposed. This combined with the rotation of the
gyroscope actually uses precession to correct the gyroscope and re-align it so that it

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is once again in a horizontal plane of rotation. Once this is done, the pendulous vane
that was closed will be open again and now cancel any force created by the air
escaping from the other open pendulous vane opposite it.

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HOW DOES THE HEADING INDICATOR FUNCTION?
The heading indicator operates under the same principle of rigidity in space. It
applies this principle around the vertical axis. Therefore the gyro is mounted on 2
(dual) gimbals that allow the aircraft to yaw, bank and pitch (depending on the
heading) but only measure movement around the vertical axis. Due to precession
and the rotation of the earth, the heading indicator requires periodic (every 15
minutes) adjustment. The heading indicator requires this adjustment manually from
the pilot and isn’t automatically corrected like the attitude indicator. The heading
indicator isn’t susceptible to the same errors of the compass and is therefore
preferred to identify the aircraft’s heading.

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WHAT SOURCES CREATE THE SUCTION/VACUUM?
On the Archer there are 2 sources of suction. The primary source is the engine driven
vacuum pump. As an alternative (secondary) the auxiliary (electric) vacuum pump
can be used by activating the switch on the left side of the panel.

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WHAT INDICATION WOULD THE PILOT RECEIVE IF THE ENGINE DRIVEN VACUUM
PUMP FAILED?
The pilot would receive 3 indications. The first and most obvious would be the
annunciator light labeled “VACUUM INOP”. The second would be the Gyro-Suction
gauge reading zero. The third would be the auxiliary vacuum pump switch; the switch
has an amber-colored annunciator light that comes on when the vacuum/suction is
low.

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WHAT SHOULD THE PILOT DO IF/WHEN THE ENGINE-DRIVEN VACUUM PUMP FAILS?
The pilot should activate the auxiliary vacuum pump by pressing the switch. When
the auxiliary vacuum pump is activated, the amber-colored “VAC OFF” annunciator
light on the switch will turn off and a blue-colored “AUX ON” annunciator light also
located on the switch will turn on. The pilot should also notice that the “VACUUM
INOP” annunciator light on the annunciator panel turns off. The pilot should also
check the Gyro-Suction gauge to make sure that vacuum suction is in the normal
range again.

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HOW DOES THE TURN COORDINATOR FUNCTION?
The turn coordinator is different from the attitude and heading indicators because it
is powered by electricity (increased redundancy) and operates under the principle of
precession. As the airplane yaws (turns) a rotational force is created. This rotational
force will be applied to the gyroscope within the turn coordinator. As per the
principle of precession when a force is applied to the gyro, the effect is that the force
is felt 90 degrees in the direction of rotation therefore tilting (banking) the gyro which
is directly connected to the little airplane on the face of the instrument. The stronger
the yawing (turning) force the greater the gyro and therefore the miniature airplane
will deflect. The yawing (turning) force can be explained using two variables. The
equation that a pilot could use to calculate the standard rate turn is as follows:

𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛= (𝑇𝐴𝑆/10)+((𝑇𝐴𝑆

/10)/2)
Therefore it is apparent that the two primary factors that determine the rate of turn
are bank angle and true airspeed.

Springs will consistently apply a force attempting to return the miniature airplane to a
level indication. The important thing to remember with the turn coordinator is that

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although the miniature airplane appears to be banking while showing yaw (turn), the
indicator doesn’t show angle of bank. Since the gimbal is canted, not only the force
of yawing is felt. As the airplane rolls into a turn the precession will begin to be felt
by the gyro. This implies that the indication not only identifies rate of turn, but also
rate of roll.

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WHAT ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES ARE AVAILABLE ON THE ARCHER III?

Heat for the cabin interior and the defroster system is provided by a heater
shroud/muff that is attached to the exhaust system. The amount of heat desired can
be regulated with the controls located on the far right side of the instrument panel.
No fan is required for the heater to work because the air that is sent into the cabin is
forced through the air inlet on the Pilot’s side of the nose by the propeller’s thrust.

With regard to the heater, the airflow can be regulated/controlled between the front
and rear seats by levers located on the floor on top of the hear ducts next to the
console.

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HOW IS FRESH AIR DELIVERED TO THE CABIN ON THE ARCHER III?

The fresh air inlets are located in the leading edge of the wings near the fuselage.
The four adjustable air vents/outlets (one per occupant) are located on the side of
the cabin on the floor at each seat location.

Air is exhausted through an outlet under the rear seat.

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HOW IS THE CABIN COOLED ON THE ARCHER III?

Most of TransPac’s Archers are equipped with air conditioning. The air conditioning
system is a recirculating air system which means that it continuously recirculates the
air in the cabin. The switches and temperature control are located on the lower right
side of the instrument panel.

The air conditioner in the aircraft operates in the same way as the air conditioning in
a home or office building. A pump known as a compressor moves a chemical known
as refrigerant through a closed system of tubes. The compressor is driven by the
engine and requires a considerable amount of the engine’s power. This is why it is
necessary to turn off the air conditioner for takeoff.

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HOW DOES THE AIR CONDITIONER FUNCTION?

The compressor moves the refrigerant through two major components; the
evaporator, and the condenser.

The evaporator (the low pressure/cold side of the system) is located in the rear of the
aircraft behind the baggage compartment. The evaporator is where the refrigerant’s
pressure is reduced causing its temperature to decrease significantly.

Cabin air is then drawn over the evaporator with a blower fan (also located behind
the baggage compartment) where it is cooled and dehumidified (dried). This cooling
and drying of the air is what is known as conditioning and this cool, dry air is then
distributed by the blower fan through air ducts over the Pilot’s and passengers’
heads.

The condenser (the high pressure/warm side of the system) is mounted on a

retractable scoop/door that is on the bottom of the fuselage. When the air
conditioner is on, this scoop/door extends so that the relative wind blows over it. To
remind the Pilot that the system is operating, a “DOOR OPEN” annunciator
illuminates (turns on). When the air conditioner is not in use, the condenser
scoop/door retracts. The purpose of the condenser is to allow the refrigerant to cool
after removing the heat from the air that passed over the evaporator. Unlike the

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evaporator which exposes the refrigerant to low pressure to allow significant cooling,
the condenser exposes the refrigerant to high pressure causing it to warm up and
release the heat it absorbed from the air that passed over the evaporator. This will
make the condenser very warm and in order for the air conditioner to continue to
function, it must be understood that the condenser needs a constant supply of air
passing over it to blow the heat away. This is why the condenser scoop/door opens
when the air conditioner is operating; the relative wind blows over the condenser
very well and quickly removes the heat. If this did not happen, the refrigerant would
quickly overheat and make the air conditioner useless.

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WHAT ISSUES WOULD PREVENT FUEL FROM FLOWING SUCCESSFULLY THROUGH THE
CARBURETOR?

- No fuel in the tank – In the Archer the Fuel Selector Valve doesn’t have a “BOTH”
position. This implies that if a pilot forgets to change tanks throughout the flight a
specific tank could become depleted.
- Blocked fuel vent – If the fuel vent associated with the tank that is being used
becomes blocked, the fuel being used will create a low pressure in the tank. The
result is the air that is in the tank will eventually have such a low pressure that the
fuel pump will no longer be able to create enough suction to force more fuel out.
This would result in no fuel continuing through the system.
- Fuel Selector Valve not in detent – The Fuel Selector Valve has 3 positions, if the
valve is transitioning between positions no fuel will flow through the system.
Therefore if the pilot leaves the valve in between 2 positions the fuel will not
continue through the system.
- Blockage within the Fuel Strainer – The Fuel Strainer acts as a filter. If there are
contaminants in the fuel it is possible that the strainer could become blocked
prohibiting fuel from flowing.
- Inoperative Fuel Pump – Fuel will not travel to the carburetor on its own (using
gravity) therefore a fuel pump must be used to “push” the fuel up to the
carburetor. If the primary engine driven fuel pump stops functioning, fuel will
immediately stop flowing to the carburetor resulting in the engine no longer

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 working. The Archer is also equipped with an Electric Fuel Pump to assist if the
engine-driven fuel pump stopped working.
- Mixture too lean – The mixture control allows the pilot to control how much fuel is
allowed to mix with the air flowing through the venturi in the carburetor. If the
mixture is moved too far aft there may not be enough fuel for the engine to
continue to operate. Usually the engine will run rough for some time before
quitting. An example of how this could occur without the pilot adjusting the
mixture would be if the mixture was set appropriately at a high cruise altitude. If
the pilot descended to a much lower altitude the density of the air would increase
and if the fuel wasn’t also increased the engine could begin running rough or have
some power loss.

A very simple study method with most of the engine systems is to simply refer to the
applicable checklist and identify why each of the line items are on the checklist. The
easiest example for the fuel system are the Power Loss in Flight checklist and the
Engine Roughness checklist. In both checklist there will be all of the fuel controls the
pilot has in the cockpit. If an explanation of why each are on the checklist can be
provided than an adequate level of knowledge as occurred.

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WHAT ARE THE AIR SOURCES FOR COMBUSTION?
There are 2 sources of air for combustion. The primary sources is a fresh air source
from the filter on the left side of the cowling. This joins the air box below the engine.
The second air source is from inside the cowling next to the air box. This air has an
exhaust pipe located near the opening. The significance of that is the air that will
move into the air box from that side will be much hotter than the air from the normal
air intake. To control which source is in use there is a valve located inside the air box.
This valve is controlled by the pilot with the “Carburetor Heat” lever next to the
throttle quadrant.

During normal operations the pilot will leave the carburetor heat in the off position
which positions the valve allowing only the air from the normal intake filter into the
carburetor. If the pilot encounters conditions conducive to the formation of carburetor
ice the carburetor heat should be turned on to ensure that the ice isn't able to build
up.

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HOW DOES THE BRAKE SYSTEM WORK?
The brakes on the Archer are hydraulically actuated. The system is divided into 2
separate sides. The left main wheel brakes can be actuated independently from the
right main wheel’s brakes. This implies that the pilot has 2 brake pedals, one for the
left main gear and one for the right main gear. Since the Archer has dual controls, the
right seat also has 2 brake pedals that will control the left and right brakes
independently. When any of the brake pedals are pressed, they will create hydraulic
pressure in a master cylinder. Each pedal has its own master cylinder. Additionally,
the parking brake handle is connected to its own master cylinder to create the
hydraulic pressure to activate both the left main and right main wheel brakes. The
interesting structure of this system is that everything is connected in series. That is to
say that tracing the hydraulic line back from the left main wheel would bring the
observer first to the master cylinder of the left seat’s left pedal followed by the right
seat’s left pedal master cylinder. Finally the hydraulic line would continue back to the
master cylinder for the parking brake handle and reservoir. The same would occur
from the right wheel’s brake: First through the left seat’s right pedal master cylinder,
second to the right seat’s right pedal master cylinder, Third to the parking brake
master cylinder and reservoir.

There is both positive and negative consequences of having the hydraulics connected
in series. The benefit is that if a hydraulic leaks near the parking brake or right seat’s
master cylinders, the pilot in the left seat will still have operable brakes. The negative

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consequence is that if the hydraulic leak occurs at or after the left seat’s master
cylinder there will be no way to use that specific brake (left main gear or right main
gear). It is imperative that a pilot ensure that there are no noticeable leaks at the
caliper or along the visible hydraulic line.

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WHAT ARE THE FLIGHT CONTROLS AND HOW DO THEY WORK?
There are 3 primary flight controls:
- The stabilator is used to control pitch by moving the yoke forward and aft. Since
the stabilator is more effective than the standard elevator that most airplanes
have, it is also equipped with an anti-servo tab that will allow the pilot to “feel”
more resistance on the controls.
- The ailerons are located on the outboard portion of the trailing edge of each wing
and move in opposite direction from one another. They move when the control
yoke is rotated to the right or left.
- The rudder is located on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer and is controlled
through pulleys connected to the rudder pedals.

Additionally, there are 2 secondary flight controls onboard the Archer.

- The flaps are located on the inboard portion of the trailing edge of each wing.
They are extended using a flap handle located between the pilot seats on the floor.
The flaps move together through 4 positions (0, 10, 25, 40).
- The anti-servo tab also serves as a trim tab that may be moved manually by the
pilot using the trim wheel located between the pilot seats.

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A mag compass is required by 91.205 for VFR day.
A magnetic compass, because it operates simply off of the earth’s magnetic fields,
will rarely fail.
In the event that the heading indicator or other systems fail, the magnetic compass
will always serve as a backup

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The earth’s magentic field goes from south pole to north pole, forming these ‘circles’
of a magnetic field around the earth
The magnetic compass tries to align itself with these fields to point to north

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The two magnets on the bottom of the compass float align themselves with the
magnetic fields. The north seeking end of the compass is under the south indication
on the compass card, as the pilot reads the float from the back. The cup and pivot
create a low friction point for the compass to turn unhindered. The case is filled with
a transparent, low friction fluid. Water will not work as it would freeze on cold winter
nights. Old aircraft utilized kerosene, which was clear, low friction, and had a low
freezing point. Newer aircraft use liquid silicon, due to the hazardous nature of
kerosene. The pilot should check to make sure the case is full of fluid, that there are
no leaks or air bubbles.

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Variation is the difference between true north and magnetic north. True north pole is
directly at the top of the earth, while magnetic pole is located just north of Ellesmere
Island, which is north of Canada and west of Greenland.
//click once to bring up a line of isogonic variation, twice for the agonic line
Lines of isogonic variation on the charts will tell pilots the difference between true
and magnetic north. Eastern variation should be subtracted, while western variation
should be added. Lines of agonic variation are where true north and magnetic north
are lined up. These lines will simply read 0.

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All equipment that generates electricity, generates an electromagnetic field.
Unfortunately, because the compass is sensitive to magnetism, the magnetic field
generated by electronics can interfere with the compass. This is called deviation. Each
aircraft is affected differently. An aircraft’s compass should always have a compass
deviation card.
//Click for the deviation card
The CDC is a placard, and therefore is required to be on the aircraft. The CDC tells a
pilot what heading to turn to when trying to fly a particular heading. In this case, a
pilot trying to fly due east (090) should fly a heading of 086 on the compass.
On the back of the compass case is two screws. This is the compensator assembly.
Adjusting these screws changes the magnetic attraction and can correct for deviation.
Only an A/P mechanic should adjust these.

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Dip is caused by the compass trying to align itself with the magnetic field. At the
equator, the magnetic field is more or less parallel to the earth’s surface. This means
the compass will also be lined up parallel to the earth’s surface and will be flat. Dip is
minimal at the equator. In the polar regions, magnetic dip is the strongest. When the
compass tries to align itself with the magnetic field, it will point down towards the
ground, making the compass unreadable. To correct for this, a magnetic compass has
a weight inside the card, usually on the north side (south seeking end) to hold the
float level. Magnetic dip and this weight are the cause of the next three errors.

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When the aircraft rolls into a turn, provided that turn is not on an east or westbound
heading, there will be northerly turning errors. As the aircraft rolls into a turn, it also
banks the compass. The compass’ magnets are now going to attempt to align with
the magnetic field. Turning from magnetic north will cause the compass to initially
indicate a turn in the opposite direction, while a turn from south will cause the
compass to indicate a turn in the correct direction, but faster than the actual rate. In
a turn from north, the compass will have to catch up the aircraft, while in a turn from
the south, the compass will eventually slow and the aircraft will catch up to it. This
means a turn from north will need to be undershot on the compass card, and a turn
from south will need to be overshot, as seen on the card.
//Click for UNOS
A pilot should undershoot a turn in the north by the amount on this picture. A turn
from N to 030 should be undershot by 20 degrees. A turn from 030 to N should be
undershot by 30 degrees. This means the rollout will be at 030, the current heading.
When the pilot rolls into the turn, the compass will swing the opposite direction.
When it returns to 030 is when the pilot should roll out. A turn from 360 to 060
needs only 10 degrees of undershoot. By the time East/West is attained, the compass
will have caught up and the undershoot is zero.
The maximum amount of overshoot/undershoot should be equal to the latitude the
flight is over. In Phoenix, we are close to 30 degrees, therefore our maximum
overshoot is 30. At the equator it would be zero, while 60 north would ideally need
60 degrees of correction. Magnetic compasses are relatively useless at high latitudes

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These are only prominent on east or west headings. When accelerating on an east or
west heading, the compass will indicate a turn to the north. This is because the
inertia of the compass weight wants to stay behind, indicating a turn to north. When
decelerating, inertia wants to keep the compass weight moving forward at the same
rate. This pulls the compass weight forward and indicates a turn to the south.

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Oscillation is the compass’ continual back and forth movement. The compass is never
sitting perfectly still. Because there is no friction, it is constantly moving; its
movement is hard to stop. Dip, northerly turning errors, and acceleration errors cause
the compass to continually indicate movement. Use an average of the indications that
it swings between.

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