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 ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

About the Authors

Kathy Sierra was a lead developer for the SCJP exam for Java 5 and Java 6.
Kathy worked as a Sun “master trainer,” and in 1997, founded
JavaRanch.com, the world’s largest Java community website. Her bestselling
Java books have won multiple Software Development Magazine awards, and
she is a founding member of Oracle’s Java Champions program.
These days, Kathy is developing advanced training programs in a variety
of domains (from horsemanship to computer programming), but the thread
that ties all of her projects together is helping learners reduce cognitive load.

Bert Bates was a lead developer for many of Sun’s Java certification exams,
including the SCJP for Java 5 and Java 6. Bert was also one of the lead
developers for Oracle’s OCA 7 and OCP 7 exams and a contributor to the
OCP 8 exam. He is a forum moderator on JavaRanch.com and has been
developing software for more than 30 years (argh!). Bert is the co-author of
several best-selling Java books, and he’s a founding member of Oracle’s Java
Champions program. Now that the book is done, Bert plans to go whack a
few tennis balls around and once again start riding his beautiful Icelandic
horse, Eyrraros fra Gufudal-Fremri.

Elisabeth Robson has an MSc in Computer Science and was a software

programmer and engineering manager at The Walt Disney Company for
many years. Since 2012 she has been a freelance writer and instructor. She
produces online training and has written four best-selling books, including
Head First Design Patterns (O’Reilly).

About the Technical Review Team

This is the fifth edition of the book that we’ve cooked up. The first version
we worked on was for Java 2. Then we updated the book for the SCJP 5,
again for the SCJP 6, then for the OCA 7 and OCP 7 exams, and now for the
OCA 8 and OCP 8 exams. Every step of the way, we were unbelievably
fortunate to have fantastic JavaRanch.com-centric technical review teams at
our sides. Over the course of the last 15 years, we’ve been “evolving” the
book more than rewriting it. Many sections from our original work on the
Java 2 book are still intact. On the following pages, we’d like to acknowledge
the members of the various technical review teams who have saved our bacon
over the years.

About the Java 2 Technical Review Team

Johannes de Jong has been the leader of our technical review teams forever
and ever. (He has more patience than any three people we know.) For the
Java 2 book, he led our biggest team ever. Our sincere thanks go out to the
following volunteers who were knowledgeable, diligent, patient, and picky,
picky, picky!
Rob Ross, Nicholas Cheung, Jane Griscti, Ilja Preuss, Vincent Brabant,
Kudret Serin, Bill Seipel, Jing Yi, Ginu Jacob George, Radiya, LuAnn
Mazza, Anshu Mishra, Anandhi Navaneethakrishnan, Didier Varon, Mary
McCartney, Harsha Pherwani, Abhishek Misra, and Suman Das.

About the SCJP 5 Technical Review Team

Andrew
Bill M.

Burk
Devender

Gian
 Jef

Jeoren

Jim
Johannes

Kristin
Marcelo

Marilyn
 Mark

Mikalai

Seema
 Valentin

We don’t know who burned the most midnight oil, but we can (and did)
count everybody’s edits—so in order of most edits made, we proudly present
our Superstars.
Our top honors go to Kristin Stromberg—every time you see a
semicolon used correctly, tip your hat to Kristin. Next up is Burk Hufnagel
who fixed more code than we care to admit. Bill Mietelski and Gian Franco
Casula caught every kind of error we threw at them—awesome job, guys!
Devender Thareja made sure we didn’t use too much slang, and Mark
Spritzler kept the humor coming. Mikalai Zaikin and Seema Manivannan
made great catches every step of the way, and Marilyn de Queiroz and
Valentin Crettaz both put in another stellar performance (saving our butts
yet again).

Marcelo Ortega, Jef Cumps (another veteran), Andrew Monkhouse, and

Jeroen Sterken rounded out our crew of Superstars—thanks to you all. Jim
Yingst was a member of the Sun exam creation team, and he helped us write
and review some of the twistier questions in the book (bwa-ha-ha-ha).
As always, every time you read a clean page, thank our reviewers, and if
you do catch an error, it’s most certainly because your authors messed up.
And oh, one last thanks to Johannes. You rule, dude!

About the SCJP 6 Technical Review Team

 Fred

Marc P.
Marc W.

Mikalai
 Christophe

Since the upgrade to the Java 6 exam was like a small surgical strike we
decided that the technical review team for this update to the book needed to
be similarly fashioned. To that end, we hand-picked an elite crew of
JavaRanch’s top gurus to perform the review for the Java 6 exam.
Our endless gratitude goes to Mikalai Zaikin. Mikalai played a huge role
in the Java 5 book, and he returned to help us out again for this Java 6
edition. We need to thank Volha, Anastasia, and Daria for letting us borrow
Mikalai. His comments and edits helped us make huge improvements to the
book. Thanks, Mikalai!

Marc Peabody gets special kudos for helping us out on a double header! In
addition to helping us with Sun’s new SCWCD exam, Marc pitched in with a
great set of edits for this book—you saved our bacon this winter, Marc!
(BTW, we didn’t learn until late in the game that Marc, Bryan Basham, and
Bert all share a passion for ultimate Frisbee!)
Like several of our reviewers, not only does Fred Rosenberger volunteer
copious amounts of his time moderating at JavaRanch, he also found time to
help us out with this book. Stacey and Olivia, you have our thanks for
loaning us Fred for a while.

Marc Weber moderates at some of JavaRanch’s busiest forums. Marc knows

his stuff and uncovered some really sneaky problems that were buried in the
book. While we really appreciate Marc’s help, we need to warn you all to
watch out—he’s got a Phaser!
Finally, we send our thanks to Christophe Verre—if we can find him. It
appears that Christophe performs his JavaRanch moderation duties from
various locations around the globe, including France, Wales, and most
recently Tokyo. On more than one occasion Christophe protected us from our
own lack of organization. Thanks for your patience, Christophe! It’s
important to know that these guys all donated their reviewer honorariums to
JavaRanch! The JavaRanch community is in your debt.

The OCA 7 and OCP 7 Team

Contributing Authors

Tom

Jeanne

The OCA 7 exam is primarily a useful repackaging of some of the objectives

from the SCJP 6 exam. On the other hand, the OCP 7 exam introduced a vast
array of brand-new topics. We enlisted several talented Java gurus to help us
cover some of the new topics on the OCP 7 exam. Thanks and kudos to Tom
McGinn for his fantastic work in creating the massive JDBC chapter. Several
reviewers told us that Tom did an amazing job channeling the informal tone
we use throughout the book. Next, thanks to Jeanne Boyarsky. Jeanne was
truly a renaissance woman on this project. She contributed to several OCP
chapters; she wrote some questions for the master exams; she performed
some project management activities; and as if that wasn’t enough, she was
one of our most energetic technical reviewers. Jeanne, we can’t thank you
enough. Our thanks go to Matt Heimer for his excellent work on the
concurrency chapter. A really tough topic, nicely handled! Finally, Roel De
Nijs and Roberto Perillo made some nice contributions to the book and
helped out on the technical review team—thanks, guys!

Technical Review Team

Roel

Mikalai
 Vijitha

Roberto

Roel, what can we say? Your work as a technical reviewer is unparalleled.

Roel caught so many technical errors, it made our heads spin. Between the
printed book and all the material on the CD, we estimate that there are over
1,500 pages of “stuff” here. It’s huge! Roel grinded through page after page,
never lost his focus, and made this book better in countless ways. Thank you,
Roel!
In addition to her other contributions, Jeanne provided one of the most
thorough technical reviews we received. (We think she enlisted her team of
killer robots to help her!)
It seems like no K&B book would be complete without help from our old
friend Mikalai Zaikin. Somehow, between earning 812 different Java
certifications, being a husband and father (thanks to Volha, Anastasia,
Daria, and Ivan), and being a “theoretical fisherman” [sic], Mikalai made
substantial contributions to the quality of the book; we’re honored that you
helped us again, Mikalai.
Next up, we’d like to thank Vijitha Kumara, JavaRanch moderator and
tech reviewer extraordinaire. We had many reviewers help out during the
long course of writing this book, but Vijitha was one of the few who stuck
with us from Chapter 1 all the way through the master exams and on to
Chapter 15. Vijitha, thank you for your help and persistence!
Finally, thanks to the rest of our review team: Roberto Perillo (who also
wrote some killer exam questions), Jim Yingst (was this your fourth time?),
other repeat offenders: Fred Rosenberger, Christophe Verre, Devaka
Cooray, Marc Peabody, and newcomer Amit Ghorpade—thanks, guys!

The OCP 8 Team

Approximately two-thirds of the OCP 8 exam’s objectives are the same as the
OCP 7 exam, and about one-third are new topics focused on all of the
amazing new features introduced in Java 8. This time around, our entire
review team was composed of veterans. In addition, it’s about time that we
give thanks to all of the folks on JavaRanch who took time to share errata
with us. Because of our amazing xiireview team and the generosity of
JavaRanchers (we know “CodeRanch”), this book was improved immensely.
Between the printed book and the two final mock exams, this book has
well over 900 pages of material. One way of looking at this book is that every
page is a series of factual claims. It’s hard to estimate, but perhaps there are
20 such claims on every page. That means we’re making about 18,000 factual
claims in this book! This makes us authors feel better about saying that our
various reviewers found hundreds of errors or areas in which our
explanations could have been better. Hundreds out of 18,000 isn’t too bad is
it?
When we’re in the mode of incorporating our reviewers’ feedback, we
often have to make tough choices. We know that our job isn’t to restate the
Java Language Spec. We have to make many decisions about how deeply to
go into the topics on the exam. You should know that our reviewers
constantly challenge us to go deeper. That’s a good thing. If you feel as
though we haven’t covered a topic as deeply as you’d like or that we’ve
oversimplified an explanation, the fault almost certainly lies with us authors,
not with the reviewers!
With all of that said, it’s time to thank the members of our amazing review
team individually.
Technical Review Team

Mikalai

Campbell

Paweł
 Frits

Roberto

Vijitha
 Tim

Mikalai, wow, wow, wow! This is the fourth time (at least?) that Mikalai
Zaikin has been one of our reviewers. Mikalai is a real expert, and he pushes
us and makes us think. Mikalai is first and foremost a family man (hooray!),
but he’s also a geek, and—not satisfied with being only a Java expert—he
also pursues other programming approaches as well. It wouldn’t surprise us
at all if he was into functional programming and other such wackiness. You
all have a huge debt to pay to Campbell. Campbell Ritchie is a JavaRanch
moderator and another true expert. Campbell is passionate about Java, and his
edits really taught us a thing or two. Thanks for all your time Campbell!
Paweł Baczyński, gave us a TON of good feedback. Paweł, send our thanks
to your wife and kids; we appreciate their patience! Our next thanks go to
veteran reviewer and JavaRanch moderator Frits Walraven. Frits is a
published mock-exam-question creator (awesome), husband, father, and
serial Java certificate holder. Get some sleep, Frits! Once again, we were
honored to have Roberto Perillo on our review team. This is at least the third
time Roberto has helped out. Given what a thankless job this is, Roberto, we
can’t thank you enough. Roberto is a dad, hooray, and from what we hear he
plays a mean guitar. With over 4000 JavaRanch posts to his credit, moderator
Vijitha Kumara proved once again to be “in it for the long haul!” In
addition to traveling and community service, Vijitha was with us right to the
final mock exam. Vijitha, thanks for all your help! Last but not least, our
thanks go to yet another JavaRanch moderator Tim Cooke. Rumor has it that
Tim’s cat Polly (an Erlang aficionado!?), was at Tim’s side throughout the
editing process. This might explain some of the attitude that came through in
Tim’s edits. Tim focused his energies on editing the new FP-ish additions to
the exam. Tim, thanks so much for all of your help!
For Jim, Joe, and Solveig
 CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

1 Declarations, Access Control, and Enums

2 Object Orientation
3 Assertions and Java Exceptions
4 Dates, Times, Locales, and Resource Bundles
5 I/O and NIO
6 Generics and Collections
7 Inner Classes
8 Lambda Expressions and Functional Interfaces
9 Streams
10 Threads
11 Concurrency
12 JDBC
A About the Online Content

Index
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments
Preface
Introduction
1 Declarations, Access Control, and Enums
Java Class Design and Object Orientation: A Refresher
Define Classes and Interfaces (OCP Objectives 1.2, 2.1, and 2.2)
Class Declarations and Modifiers
Exercise 1-1: Creating an Abstract Superclass and Concrete
Subclass
Use Interfaces (OCP Objective 2.5)
Declaring an Interface
Declaring Interface Constants
Declaring default Interface Methods
Declaring static Interface Methods
Declare Class Members (OCP Objectives 1.2, 1.6, 2.1, and 2.2)
Access Modifiers
Nonaccess Member Modifiers
Constructor Declarations
Variable Declarations
Declare and Use enums (OCP Objective 2.4)
Declaring enums
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
2 Object Orientation
Encapsulation (OCP Objective 1.1)
Inheritance and Polymorphism (OCP Objectives 1.2 and 1.3)
The Evolution of Inheritance
IS-A and HAS-A Relationships
Polymorphism (OCP Objective 1.3)
Overriding/Overloading (OCP Objectives 1.2, 1.3, and 2.5)
Overridden Methods
Overloaded Methods
Casting (OCP Objectives 1.2 and 1.3)
Implementing an Interface (OCP Objective 2.5)
Java 8—Now with Multiple Inheritance!
Legal Return Types (OCP Objectives 1.2 and 1.3)
Return Type Declarations
Returning a Value
Constructors and Instantiation (OCP Objectives 1.2 and 1.3)
Constructor Basics
Constructor Chaining
Rules for Constructors
Determine Whether a Default Constructor Will Be Created
Overloaded Constructors
Singleton Design Pattern (OCP Objective 1.5)
What Is a Design Pattern?
Problem
Solution
Benefits
Immutable Classes (OCP Objective 1.5)
Initialization Blocks (OCP Objective 1.6)
Statics (OCP Objective 1.6)
Static Variables and Methods
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
3 Assertions and Java Exceptions
Working with the Assertion Mechanism (OCP Objective 6.5)
Assertions Overview
Using Assertions
Using Assertions Appropriately
Working with Exception Handling (OCP Objectives 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, and
6.4)
Use the try Statement with multi-catch and finally Clauses
AutoCloseable Resources with a try-with-resources Statement
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
4 Dates, Times, Locales, and Resource Bundles
Dates, Times, and Locales (OCP Objectives 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, and 12.1)
Working with Dates and Times
The java.time.* Classes for Dates and Times
Properties Files (OCP Objective 12.2)
Resource Bundles (OCP Objectives 12.1, 12.2, and 12.3)
Java Resource Bundles
Default Locale
Choosing the Right Resource Bundle
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
5 I/O and NIO
File Navigation and I/O (OCP Objectives 8.1 and 8.2)
Creating Files Using the File Class
Using FileWriter and FileReader
Using FileInputStream and FileOutputStream
Combining I/O Classes
 Working with Files and Directories
The java.io.Console Class
Files, Path, and Paths (OCP Objectives 9.1 and 9.2)
Creating a Path
Creating Files and Directories
Copying, Moving, and Deleting Files
Retrieving Information about a Path
Normalizing a Path
Resolving a Path
Relativizing a Path
File and Directory Attributes (OCP Objective 9.2)
Reading and Writing Attributes the Easy Way
Types of Attribute Interfaces
Working with BasicFileAttributes
Working with DosFileAttributes
Working with PosixFileAttributes
Reviewing Attributes
DirectoryStream (OCP Objectives 9.2 and 9.3)
FileVisitor
PathMatcher
WatchService
Serialization (Objective 8.2)
Working with ObjectOutputStream and ObjectInputStream
Object Graphs
Using writeObject and readObject
How Inheritance Affects Serialization
Serialization Is Not for Statics
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
6 Generics and Collections
Override hashCode(), equals(), and toString() (OCP Objective 1.4)
 The toString() Method
Overriding equals()
Overriding hashCode()
Collections Overview (OCP Objective 3.2)
So What Do You Do with a Collection?
Key Interfaces and Classes of the Collections Framework
List Interface
Set Interface
Map Interface
Queue Interface
Using Collections (OCP Objectives 2.6, 3.2, and 3.3)
ArrayList Basics
Autoboxing with Collections
The Java 7 “Diamond” Syntax
Sorting Collections and Arrays
Navigating (Searching) TreeSets and TreeMaps
Other Navigation Methods
Backed Collections
Using the PriorityQueue Class and the Deque Interface
Method Overview for Arrays and Collections
Method Overview for List, Set, Map, and Queue
Generic Types (OCP Objective 3.1)
The Legacy Way to Do Collections
Generics and Legacy Code
Mixing Generic and Nongeneric Collections
Polymorphism and Generics
Generic Methods
Generic Declarations
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
7 Inner Classes
 Nested Classes (OCP Objective 2.3)
Inner Classes
Coding a “Regular” Inner Class
Referencing the Inner or Outer Instance from Within the Inner
Class
Method-Local Inner Classes
What a Method-Local Inner Object Can and Can’t Do
Anonymous Inner Classes
Plain-Old Anonymous Inner Classes, Flavor One
Plain-Old Anonymous Inner Classes, Flavor Two
Argument-Defined Anonymous Inner Classes
Static Nested Classes
Instantiating and Using Static Nested Classes
Lambda Expressions as Inner Classes (OCP Objective 2.6)
Comparator Is a Functional Interface
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
8 Lambda Expressions and Functional Interfaces
Lambda Expression Syntax (OCP Objective 2.6)
Passing Lambda Expressions to Methods
Accessing Variables from Lambda Expressions
Functional Interfaces (OCP Objectives 3.5, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4)
Built-in Functional Interfaces
What Makes an Interface Functional?
Categories of Functional Interfaces
Method References (OCP Objective 3.8)
Kinds of Method References
Write Your Own Functional Interface
Functional Interface Overview
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
 Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
9 Streams
What Is a Stream? (OCP Objective 3.4)
How to Create a Stream (OCP Objectives 3.5 and 9.3)
Create a Stream from a Collection
Build a Stream with Stream.of()
Create a Stream from an Array
Create a Stream from a File
Primitive Value Streams
Summary of Methods to Create Streams
Why Streams?
The Stream Pipeline (OCP Objective 3.6)
Streams Are Lazy
Operating on Streams (OCP Objectives 3.7 and 5.1)
Map-Filter-Reduce with average() and Optionals (OCP Objectives 5.3
and 5.4)
Reduce
Using reduce()
Associative Accumulations
map-filter-reduce Methods
Optionals (OCP Objective 5.3)
Searching and Sorting with Streams (OCP Objectives 5.2 and 5.5)
Searching to See Whether an Element Exists
Searching to Find and Return an Object
Sorting
Methods to Search and Sort Streams
Don’t Modify the Source of a Stream
Collecting Values from Streams (OCP Objectives 3.8, 5.6, and 9.3)
Using collect() with Files.lines()
Exercise 9-1: Collecting Items in a List
Grouping and Partitioning
Summing and Averaging
 Counting, joining, maxBy, and minBy
Stream Methods to Collect and Their Collectors
Streams of Streams (OCP Objective 5.7)
Generating Streams (OCP Objective 3.4)
Methods to Generate Streams
Caveat Time Again
A Taste of Parallel Streams
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
Exercise Answer
10 Threads
Defining, Instantiating, and Starting Threads (OCP Objective 10.1)
Making a Thread
Defining a Thread
Instantiating a Thread
Starting a Thread
Thread States and Transitions
Thread States
Preventing Thread Execution
Sleeping
Exercise 10-1: Creating a Thread and Putting It to Sleep
Thread Priorities and yield( )
Synchronizing Code, Thread Problems (OCP Objectives 10.2 and 10.3)
Preventing the Account Overdraw
Synchronization and Locks
Exercise 10-2: Synchronizing a Block of Code
Thread Deadlock
Thread Livelock
Thread Starvation
Race Conditions
Thread Interaction (OCP Objectives 10.2 and 10.3)
 Using notifyAll( ) When Many Threads May Be Waiting
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
Exercise Answers
11 Concurrency
Concurrency with the java.util.concurrent Package
Apply Atomic Variables and Locks (OCP Objective 10.3)
Atomic Variables
Locks
Use java.util.concurrent Collections (OCP Objective 10.4)
Copy-on-Write Collections
Concurrent Collections
Blocking Queues
Controlling Threads with CyclicBarrier
Use Executors and ThreadPools (OCP Objective 10.1)
Identifying Parallel Tasks
How Many Threads Can You Run?
CPU-Intensive vs. I/O-Intensive Tasks
Fighting for a Turn
Decoupling Tasks from Threads
Use the Parallel Fork/Join Framework (OCP Objective 10.5)
Divide and Conquer
ForkJoinPool
ForkJoinTask
Parallel Streams (OCP Objective 10.6)
How to Make a Parallel Stream Pipeline
Embarrassingly Parallel, Take Two (with Parallel Streams)
A Parallel Stream Implementation of a RecursiveTask
Reducing Parallel Streams with reduce()
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
 Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
12 JDBC
Starting Out: Introduction to Databases and JDBC
Talking to a Database
Bob’s Books, Our Test Database
Core Interfaces of the JDBC API (OCP Objective 11.1)
Connect to a Database Using DriverManager (OCP Objective 11.2)
The DriverManager Class
The JDBC URL
JDBC Driver Implementation Versions
Submit Queries and Read Results from the Database (OCP Objective
11.3)
All of Bob’s Customers
Statements
ResultSets
When Things Go Wrong—Exceptions and Warnings
Certification Summary
Two-Minute Drill
Q&A Self Test
Self Test Answers
A About the Online Content
McGraw-Hill Professional Media Center Download
Total Tester Online System Requirements
Single User License Terms and Conditions
Total Tester Online
Technical Support

Index
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

athy and Bert (and in the cases of McGraw-Hill Education and

K JavaRanch, Elisabeth) would like to thank the following people:

All the incredibly hard-working folks at McGraw-Hill Education: Tim

Green (who’s been putting up with us for 15 years now), LeeAnn
Pickrell (and team), Lisa McClain, Jody McKenzie, and Jim Kussow.
Thanks for all your help, and for being so responsive, patient, flexible,
and professional, and the nicest group of people we could hope to
work with.
All of our friends at Kraftur (and our other horse-related friends) and
most especially to Sherry; Steinar; Stina and the girls, Jec, Lucy, Cait,
and Jennifer; Leslie and David; Annette and Bruce; Kacie; DJ;
Gabrielle; and Mary. Thanks to Pedro and Ely, who can’t believe it
can take so long to finish a book.
Some of the software professionals and friends who helped us in the
early days: Tom Bender, Peter Loerincs, Craig Matthews, Leonard
Coyne, Morgan Porter, and Mike Kavenaugh.
Dave Gustafson and Marc Hedlund for their continued support,
insights, and coaching.
Our good friend at Oracle, Yvonne Prefontiane.
The crew at Oracle who worked hard to build these exams: Tom
McGinn, Matt Heimer, Mike Williams, Stuart Marks, and Mikalai
Zaikin.
Our old wonderful and talented certification team at Sun Educational
Services, primarily the most persistent get-it-done person we know,
Evelyn Cartagena.
Our great friends and gurus, Simon Roberts, Bryan Basham, and
Kathy Collina.
Stu, Steve, Burt, and Eric for injecting some fun into the process.
To Eden and Skyler, for being horrified that adults—out of school—
would study this hard for an exam.
To the JavaRanch Trail Boss Paul Wheaton, for running the best Java
community site on the Web, and to all the generous and patient
JavaRanch moderators.
To all the past and present Sun Ed Java instructors for helping to
make learning Java a fun experience, including (to name only a few)
Alan Petersen, Jean Tordella, Georgianna Meagher, Anthony
Orapallo, Jacqueline Jones, James Cubeta, Teri Cubeta, Rob
Weingruber, John Nyquist, Asok Perumainar, Steve Stelting,
Kimberly Bobrow, Keith Ratliff, and the most caring and inspiring
Java guy on the planet, Jari Paukku.
Our furry and feathered friends Eyra, Kara, Draumur, Vafi, Boi, Niki,
and Bokeh.
Finally, to Elisabeth Robson (our amazing new co-author) and Eric
Freeman, for your continued inspiration.
 PREFACE

his book’s primary objective is to help you prepare for and pass

T Oracle’s OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II certification exam.

If you already have an SCJP 6 or OCP 7 certification and want to take an

upgrade exam, all of the topics covered in the OCP 7 and SCJP 6 Upgrade
exams are covered here as well.
This book follows closely both the breadth and the depth of the real
exams. For instance, after reading this book, you probably won’t emerge as
an NIO.2 guru, but if you study the material and do well on the Self Tests,
you’ll have a basic understanding of NIO.2, and you’ll do well on the exam.
After completing this book, you should feel confident that you have
thoroughly reviewed all of the objectives that Oracle has established for these
exams.

In This Book
This book is organized to optimize your learning of the topics covered by the
OCP 8 exam. Whenever possible, we’ve organized the chapters to parallel the
Oracle objectives, but sometimes we’ll mix up objectives or partially repeat
them in order to present topics in an order better suited to learning the
material.

In the Chapters
We’ve created a set of chapter components that call your attention to
important items, reinforce important points, and provide helpful exam-taking
hints. Take a look at what you’ll find in the chapters:

Every chapter begins with the Certification Objectives—what you

 need to know in order to pass the section on the exam dealing with the
chapter topic. The Certification Objective headings identify the
objectives within the chapter, so you’ll always know an objective
when you see it!

On the Job callouts discuss practical aspects of certification topics

that might not occur on the exam, but that will be useful in the real
world.

Exam Watch notes call attention to information about, and potential

pitfalls in, the exam. Since we were on the team that created these
exams, we know what you’re about to go through!

Exercises help you master skills that are likely to be an area of focus
on the exam. Don’t just read through the exercises; they are hands-on
practice that you should be comfortable completing. Learning by
doing is an effective way to increase your competency with a product.
The Certification Summary is a succinct review of the chapter and a
restatement of salient points regarding the exam.

The Two-Minute Drill at the end of every chapter is a checklist of

the main points of the chapter. It can be used for last-minute review.
Q&A
The Self Test offers questions similar to those found on the
certification exam, including multiple-choice and pseudo drag-and-
drop questions. The answers to these questions, as well as
explanations of the answers, can be found at the end of every chapter.
By taking the Self Test after completing each chapter, you’ll reinforce
what you’ve learned from that chapter, while becoming familiar with
the structure of the exam questions.
 INTRODUCTION

Organization
This book is organized in such a way as to serve as an in-depth review for the
OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II exam for both experienced Java professionals
and those in the early stages of experience with Java technologies. Each
chapter covers at least one major aspect of the exam, with an emphasis on the
“why” as well as the “how to” of programming in the Java language.
Throughout this book and supplemental digital material, you’ll find
support for three exams:

OCP Java SE 8 Programmer II

Upgrade to Java SE 8 Programmer from Java SE 7
Upgrade to Java SE 8 Programmer from Java SE 6

What This Book Is Not

You will not find a beginner’s guide to learning Java in this book. All 900+
pages of this book are dedicated solely to helping you pass the exams. Since
you cannot take this exam without another Java certification under your belt,
in this book, we assume you have a working knowledge of everything
covered in the OCA 8 exam. We do not, however, assume any level of prior
knowledge of the individual topics covered. In other words, for any given
topic (driven exclusively by the actual exam objectives), we start with the
assumption that you are new to that topic. So we assume you’re new to the
individual topics, but we assume that you are not new to Java.
We also do not pretend to be both preparing you for the exam and
simultaneously making you a complete Java being. This is a certification
exam study guide, and it’s very clear about its mission. That’s not to say that
preparing for the exam won’t help you become a better Java programmer! On
the contrary, even the most experienced Java developers often claim that
having to prepare for the certification exam made them far more
knowledgeable and well-rounded programmers than they would have been
without the exam-driven studying.

About the Digital Content

You’ll receive access to online practice exam software with the equivalent of
two 85-question exams for OCP Java SE 8 candidates. The digital content
included with the book includes three chapters that complete the coverage
necessary for the OCP 7 and SCJP 6 upgrade certifications. We’ve also
included an Online Appendix, “Creating Streams from Files Methods,”
describing additional methods for processing files and directories.
Please see the Appendix for details on accessing the digital content and
online practice exams.

Some Pointers
Once you’ve finished reading this book, set aside some time to do a thorough
review. You might want to return to the book several times and make use of
all the methods it offers for reviewing the material:

1. Re-read all the Two-Minute Drills, or have someone quiz you. You
also can use the drills as a way to do a quick cram before the exam.
You might want to make some flash cards out of 3×5 index cards that
have the Two-Minute Drill material on them.
2. Re-read all the Exam Watch notes. Remember that these notes are
written by authors who helped create the exam. They know what you
should expect—and what you should be on the lookout for.
3. Re-take the Self Tests. Taking the tests right after you’ve read the
chapter is a good idea because the questions help reinforce what
you’ve just learned. However, it’s an even better idea to go back later
and do all the questions in the book in one sitting. Pretend that you’re
taking the live exam. (Whenever you take the Self Tests, mark your
answers on a separate piece of paper. That way, you can run through
the questions as many times as you need to until you feel comfortable
with the material.)
 4. Complete the exercises. The exercises are designed to cover exam
topics, and there’s no better way to get to know this material than by
practicing. Be sure you understand why you are performing each step
in each exercise. If there is something you are not clear on, re-read
that section in the chapter.
5. Write lots of Java code. We’ll repeat this advice several times. When
we wrote this book, we wrote hundreds of small Java programs to
help us do our research. We have heard from hundreds of candidates
who have passed the exam, and in almost every case, the candidates
who scored extremely well on the exam wrote lots of code during
their studies. Experiment with the code samples in the book, create
horrendous lists of compiler errors—put away your IDE, crank up the
command line, and write code!

A Note About the Certification Objectives

Some of the OCP 8 Certification Objectives are not exactly the most clearly
written objectives. You may, as we sometimes did, find yourself squinting a
little sideways at an objective when attempting to parse what exactly the
objective is about and what the objective might be leaving unsaid. We’ve
done our best to cover all the topics we think the objective writers meant to
include. And, as a reminder, we do try to teach about 115 percent of what we
think you’ll need to know for the exam, just to cover all our (and your) bases.
That said, there are some gray areas here and there. So look carefully at each
objective, and if you think there’s something we missed, go study that on
your own (and do let us know!).

Introduction to the Material in the Book

The OCP 8 exam is considered one of the hardest in the IT industry, and we
can tell you from experience that a large chunk of exam candidates goes in to
the test unprepared. As programmers, we tend to learn only what we need to
complete our current project, given the insane deadlines we’re usually under.
But this exam attempts to prove your complete understanding of the Java
language, not just the parts of it you’ve become familiar with in your work.
Experience alone will rarely get you through this exam with a passing
mark, because even the things you think you know might work just a little
differently than you imagined. It isn’t enough to be able to get your code to
work correctly; you must understand the core fundamentals in a deep way
and with enough breadth to cover virtually anything that could crop up in the
course of using the language.

Who Cares About Certification?

Employers do. Headhunters do. Programmers do. Passing this exam proves
three important things to a current or prospective employer: you’re smart;
you know how to study and prepare for a challenging test; and, most of all,
you know the Java language. If an employer has a choice between a
candidate who has passed xxxvithe exam and one who hasn’t, the employer
knows that the certified programmer does not have to take time to learn the
Java language.
But does it mean that you can actually develop software in Java? Not
necessarily, but it’s a good head start.

Taking the Programmer’s Exam

In a perfect world, you would be assessed for your true knowledge of a
subject, not simply how you respond to a series of test questions. But life
isn’t perfect, and it just isn’t practical to evaluate everyone’s knowledge on a
one-to-one basis.
For the majority of its certifications, Oracle evaluates candidates using a
computer-based testing service operated by Pearson VUE. To discourage
simple memorization, Oracle exams present a potentially different set of
questions to different candidates. In the development of the exam, hundreds
of questions are compiled and refined using beta testers. From this large
collection, questions are pulled together from each objective and assembled
into many different versions of the exam.
Each Oracle exam has a specific number of questions, and the test’s
duration is designed to be generous. The time remaining is always displayed
in the corner of the testing screen. If time expires during an exam, the test
terminates, and incomplete answers are counted as incorrect.
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Footprints of the
Red Men
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
using this eBook.

Title: Footprints of the Red Men

Author: Edward Manning Ruttenber

Release date: February 14, 2016 [eBook #51217]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Roger Burch with scans provided by the Internet Archive.

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOTPRINTS OF THE

RED MEN ***
FOOTPRINTS OF THE RED MEN.

Indian Geographical Names

IN THE VALLEY OF HUDSON'S

RIVER,
THE VALLEY OF THE MOHAWK,
AND ON THE DELAWARE:
THEIR LOCATION AND THE
PROBABLE
MEANING OF SOME OF THEM.

BY

E. M. RUTTENBER,
Author of "History of the Indian Tribes of Hudson's River."
 "Indian place-names are not proper names, that is unmeaning words, but
significant appellatives each conveying a description of the locality to which it
belongs."—Trumbull.

PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES

OF THE

New York State Historical Association.

 Copyrighted by the

NEW YORK STATE HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.

1906.
{INDEX p. 237}
 Primary Explanations.

The locatives of the Indian geographical names which have been handed
down as the names of boundmarks or of places or tribes, are properly a subject
of study on the part of all who would be familiar with the aboriginal geography
of a district or a state. In many cases these names were quite as designative of
geographical centers as are the names of the towns, villages and cities which
have been substituted for them. In some cases they have been wisely retained,
while the specific places to which they belonged have been lost. In this work
special effort has been made, first, to ascertain the places to which the names
belonged as given in official records, to ascertain the physical features of those
places, and carry back the thought to the poetic period of our territorial history,
"when the original drapery in which nature was enveloped under the dominion
of the laws of vegetation, spread out in one vast, continuous interminable
forest," broken here and there by the opened patches of corn-lands and the
wigwams and villages of the redmen; secondly, to ascertain the meanings of the
aboriginal names, recognizing fully that, as Dr. Trumbull wrote, "They were not
proper names or mere unmeaning marks, but significant appellatives conveying
a description of the locatives to which they were given." Coming down to us in
the crude orthographies of traders and unlettered men, they are not readily
recognized in the orthographies of the educated missionaries, and especially are
they disguised by the varying powers of the German, the French, and the
English alphabets in which they were written by educated as well as by
uneducated scribes, and by traders who were certainly not very familiar with the
science of representing spoken sounds by letters. In one instance the same name
appears in forty-nine forms by different writers. Many names, however, have
been recognized under missionary standards and their meanings satisfactorily
ascertained, aided by the features of the localities to which they were applied;
the latter, indeed, contributing very largely to their interpretation. Probably the
reader will find geographical descriptions that do not apply to the places where
the name is now met. The early settlers made many transfers as well as
extensions of names from a specific place to a large district of country. It must
be remembered that original applications were specific to the places which they
described even though they were generic and applicable to any place where the
same features were referred to. The locatives in Indian deeds and original
patents are the only guide to places of original application, coupled with
descriptive features where they are known.

No vocabularies of the dialects spoken in the lower valley of the Hudson

having been preserved, the vocabularies of the Upper-Unami and the Minsi-
Lenape, or Delaware tongues on the south and west, and the Natick, or
Massachusetts, on the north and east, have been consulted for explanations by
comparative inductive methods, and also orthographies in other places, the
interpretations of which have been established by competent linguists. In all
cases where the meaning of terms has been particularly questioned, the best
expert authority has been consulted. While positive accuracy is not asserted in
any case, it is believed that in most cases the interpretations which have been
given may be accepted as substantially correct. There is no poetry in them—no
"glittering waterfalls," no "beautiful rivers," no "smile of the Great Spirit," no
"Holy place of sacred feasts and dances," but plain terms that have their
equivalents in our own language for a small hill, a high hill, a mountain, a
brook, a creek, a kill, a river, a pond, a lake, a swamp, a large stone, a place of
small stones, a split rock, a meadow, or whatever the objective feature may have
been as recognized by the Indian. Many of them were particular names in the
form of verbals indicating a place where the action of the verb was performed;
occasionally the name of a sachem is given as that of his place of residence or
the stream on which he resided, but all are from generic roots.

To the Algonquian dialects spoken in the valley of Hudson's River at the

time of the discovery, was added later the Mohawk—Iroquorian, to some extent,
more particularly on the north, where it appears about 1621-6, as indicated in
the blanket deed given by the Five Nations to King George in 1726.
Territorially, in the primary era of European invasion, the Eastern Algonquian
prevailed, in varying idioms, on both sides of the river, from a northern point to
the Katskills, and from thence south to the Highlands a type of the Unami-
Minsi-Lenape or Delaware. That spoken around New York on both sides of the
river, was classed by the early Dutch writers as Manhattan, as distinguished
from dialects in the Highlands and from the Savano or dialects of the East New
England coast. North of the Highlands on both sides of the river, they classed
the dialect as Wapping, and from the Katskills north as Mahican or Mohegan,
preserved in part in what is known as the Stockbridge. Presumably the dialects
were more or less mixed and formed as a whole what may be termed "The
Hudson's River Dialect," radically Lenape or Delaware, as noted by Governor
Tryon in 1774. In local names we seem to meet the Upper-Unami and the Minsi
of New Jersey, and the Mohegan and the Natick of the north and east, the
Quiripi of the Sound, and the dialect of the Connecticut Valley. In the belt of
country south of the Katskills they were soft and vocalic, the lingual mute t
frequently appearing and r taking the place of the Eastern l and n. In the Minsi
(Del.) Zeisberger wrote l invariably, as distinguished from r, which appears in
the earliest local names in the valley of the Hudson. Other dialectic peculiarities
seem to appear in the exchange of the sonant g for the hard sound of the surd
mute k, and of p for g, s for g, and t for d, st for gk, etc. Initials are badly mixed,
presumably due in part at least, to the habit of Indian speakers in throwing the
sound of the word forward to the penult; in some cases to the lack of an "Indian
ear" on the part of the hearer.

In structure all Algonquian dialects are Polysynthetic, i. e., words

composed wholly or in part of other words or generic roots. Pronunciations and
inflections differ as do the words in meaning in many cases. In all dialects the
most simple combinations appear in geographical names, which the late Dr. J.
H. Trumbull resolved into three classes, viz.: "I. Those formed by the union of
two elements, which we will call adjectival and substantival, or ground-word,
with or without a locative suffix, or post-position word meaning 'at,' 'in,' 'on,'
'near,' etc. [I use the terms 'adjectival' and 'substantival,' because no true
adjectives or substantives enter into the composition of Algonquian names. The
adjectival may be an adverb or a preposition; the substantival element is often a
verbal, which serves in composition as a generic name, but which cannot be
used as an independent word—the synthesis always retains the verbal form.] II.
Those which have a single element, the substantival, or ground-word, with
locative suffix. III. Those formed from verbs as participials or verbal nouns,
denoting a place where the action of the verb is performed. Most of these latter,
however," he adds, "may be shown by strict analysis to belong to one of the two
preceding classes, which comprise at least nine-tenths of all Algonquian local
names which have been preserved." For example, in Class I, Wapan-aki is a
combination of Wapan, "the Orient," "the East," and aki, "Land, place or
country," unlimited; with locative suffix (-ng, Del., -it, Mass.), "In the East Land
or Country." Kit-ann-ing, Del., is a composition from Kitschi, "Chief, principal,
greatest," hanné, "river," and ing locative, and reads, "A place at or on the
largest river." The suffix -aki, -acki, -hacki, Del., meaning "Land, place, or
country, unlimited," in Eastern orthographies -ohke, -auke, -ague, -ke, -ki, etc.,
is changed to -kamik, or -kamike, Del., -kamuk or -komuk, Mass., in describing
"Land or place limited," or enclosed, a particular place, as a field, garden, and
also used for house, thicket, etc. The Eastern post-position locatives are -it, -et, -
at, -ut; the Delaware, -ng, -nk, with connecting vowel -ing, -ink, -ong, -onk, -
ung, -unk, etc. The meaning of this class of suffixes is the same; they locate a
place or object that is at, in, or on some other place or object, the name of
Which is prefixed, as in Delaware Hitgunk, "On or to a tree;" Utenink, "In the
town;" Wachtschunk, "On the mountain." In some cases the locative takes the
verbal form indicating place or country, Williams wrote "Sachimauónck, a
Kingdom or Monarchy." Dr. Schoolcraft wrote: "From Ojibwai (Chippeway) is
formed Ojib-wain-ong, 'Place of the Chippeways;' Monominikaun-ing, 'In the
place of wild rice,'" Dr. Brinton wrote "Walum-ink, 'The place of paint.'" The
letter s, preceding the locative, changes the meaning of the latter to near, or
something less than at or on. The suffixes -is, -it, -os, -es mean "Small," as in
Ménates or Ménatit, "Small island." The locative affix cannot be applied to an
animal in the sense of at, in, on, to. There are many formative inflections and
suffixes indicating the plural, etc.

Mohawk or Iroquoian names, while polysynthetic, differ from Algonquian

in construction. "The adjective," wrote Horatio Hale, "when employed in an
isolated form, follows the substantive, as Kanonsa, 'house;' Kanonsa-kowa,
'large house;' but in general the substantive and adjective coalesce." In some
cases the adjective is split in two, and the substantive inserted, as in Tiogen, a
composition of Te, "two," and ogen, "to separate," which is split and the word
ononté, "mountain," or hill, inserted, forming Te-ononté-ogen, "Between two
mountains," "The local relations of nouns are expressed by affixed particles,
such as ke, ne, kon, akon, akta. Thus from Onónta, mountain, we have
Onóntáke, at (or to) the mountain; from Akéhrat dish, Akehrátne, in or on the
dish," etc. From the variety of its forms and combinations it is a more difficult
language than the Algonquian. No European has fully mastered it.

No attempt has been made to correct record orthographies further than to

give their probable missionary equivalents where they can be recognized. In
many cases crude orthographies have converted them into unknown tongues.
Imperfect as many of them are and without standing in aboriginal glossaries,
they have become place names that may not be disturbed. No two of the early
scribes expressed the sound of the same name in precisely the same letters, and
even the missionaries who gave attention to the study of the aboriginal tongues,
did not always write twice alike. Original sounds cannot now be restored. The
diacritical marks employed by Williams and Eliot in the English alphabet, and
by Zeisberger and Heckewelder in the German alphabet, are helpful in
pronunciations, but as a rule the corrupt local record orthographies are a law
unto themselves. In quoting diacritical marks the forms of the learned linguists
who gave their idea of how the word was pronounced, have been followed. It is
not, however, in the power of diacritical marks or of any European alphabet to
express correctly the sound of an Algonquian or of an Iroquoian word as it was
originally spoken, or write it in European characters. Practically, every essential
element in pronunciation is secured by separating the forms into words or parts
of words, or particles, of which it is composed, (where the original elements of
the composition cannot be detected) by syllabalizing on the vowel sounds. An
anglicized vocalism of any name may be readily established and an original
name formed in American nomenclature, as many names in current use amply
illustrates. Few would suspect that Ochsechraga (Mohawk) was the original of
Saratoga, or that P'tuk-sepo (Lenape) was the original of Tuxedo.

A considerable number of record names have been included that are not
living. They serve to illustrate the dialect spoken in the valley as handed down
by European scribes of different languages, as well as the local geography of the
Indians. The earlier forms are mainly Dutch notations. A few Dutch names that
are regarded by some as Indian, have been noticed, and also some Indian names
on the Delaware River which, from the associations of that river with the history
of the State, as in part one of its boundary streams, as well as the intimate
associations of the names with the history of the valley of Hudson's River,
become of especial interest.

In the arrangement of names geographical association has been adopted in

preference to the alphabetical, the latter being supplied by index. This
arrangement seems to bring together dialectic groups more satisfactorily. That
there were many variations in the dialects spoken in the valley of Hudson's
River no one will deny, but it may be asserted with confidence that the
difference between the German and the English alphabets in renderings is more
marked than differences in dialects. In so far as the names have been brought
together they form the only key to the dialects which were spoken in the valley.
Their grammatical treatment is the work of skilled philologists.

Credit has been given for interpretations where the authors were known,
and especially to the late eminent Algonquian authority, J. Hammond Trumbull.
Special acknowledgment of valuable assistance is made to the late Dr. D. G.
Brinton, of Philadelphia; to the late Horatio Hale, M. A., of Clinton, Ontario,
Canada; to the late Prof. J. W. Powell, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington,
D. C, and his successor, William H. Holmes, and their co-laborers, Dr. Albert S.
Gatschet and J. B. N. Hewitt, and to Mr. William R. Gerard, of New York.

The compilation of names and the ascertaining of their locatives and

probable meanings has interested me. Where those names have been preserved
in place they are certain descriptive landmarks above all others. The results of
my amateur labors may be useful to others in the same field of inquiry as well
as to professional linguists. Primarily the work was not undertaken with a view
to publication. Gentlemen of the New York Historical Association, with a view
to preserve what has been done, and which may never be again undertaken,
have asked the manuscript for publication, and it has been given to them for that
purpose.

E. M. RUTTENBER.

Newburgh, January, 1906.

 INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.

Hudson's River and Its Islands.

Muhheakun'nuk, "The great waters or sea, which are constantly in

motion, either ebbing or flowing," was written by Chief Hendrick Aupaumut, in
his history of the Muhheakun'nuk nation, as the name of Hudson's River, in the
Stockbridge dialect, and its meaning. The first word, Muhheakun, was the
national name of the people occupying both banks of the river from Roelof
Jansen's Kill, a few miles south of Catskill, on the east side of the river, north
and east with limit not known, and the second -nuk, the equivalent of
Massachusetts -tuk, Lenape -ittuk, "Tidal river, or estuary," or "Waters driven by
waves or tides," with the accessory meaning of "great." Literally, in application,
"The great tidal river of the Muhheakan'neuw nation." The Dutch wrote the
national name Mahikan, Maikan, etc., and the English of Connecticut wrote
Mohegan, which was claimed by Drs. Schoolcraft and Trumbull to be derived
from Maingan (Cree Mahéggun), "Wolf"—"an enchanted wolf, or a wolf of
supernatural powers." From their prevailing totem or prevailing coat-of-arms,
the Wolf, the French called them Loups, "wolves," and also Manhingans,
including under the names "The nine nations gathered between Manhattan and
Quebec." While the name is generic its application to Hudson's River was
probably confined to the vicinity of Albany, where Chief Aupaumut located
their ancient capital under the name of Pem-po-tow-wut-hut Muh-hea-kan-
neuw, "The fire-place of the Muh-hea-kan-nuk nation." [FN] The Dutch found
them on both sides of the river north of Catskill, with extended northern and
eastern alliances, and south of that point, on the east side of the river, in alliance
with a tribe known as Wappans or Wappings, Wappani, or "East-side people,"
the two nations forming the Mahikan nation of Hudson's River as known in
history. (See Wahamensing.)

[FN] Presumed to have been at what is now known as Scho-lac, which see.
 Father Jogues, the French-Jesuit martyr-missionary, wrote in 1646, Oi-o-
gué as the Huron-Iroquoian name of the river, given to him at Sarachtoga, with
the connection "At the river." "Ohioge, river; Ohioge-son, at the long river,"
wrote Bruyas. Arent van Curler wrote the same name, in 1634, Vyoge, and gave
it as that of the Mohawk River, correcting the orthography, in his vocabulary, to
"Oyoghi, a kill" or channel. It is an Iroquoian generic applicable to any principal
stream or current river, with the ancient related meaning of "beautiful river."

It is said that the Mohawks called the river Cohohataton. I have not met
that name in records. It was quoted by Dr. Schoolcraft as traditional, and of
course doubtful. He wrote it Kohatatea, and in another connection wrote "-atea,
a valley or landscape." It is suspected that he coined the name, as he did many
others. Shate-muck is quoted as a Mohegan [FN-1] name, but on very obscure
evidence, although it may have been the name of an eel fishing-place, or a great
fishing-place (-amaug). Hudson called the stream "The River of the
Mountains." On some ancient maps it is called "Manhattans River." The Dutch
authorities christened it "Mauritus' River" in honor of their Staat-holder, Prince
Maurice. The English recognized the work of the explorer by conferring the title
"Hudson's River." It is a fact established that Verrazano visited New York harbor
in 1524, and gave to the river the name "Riviere Grande," or Great River; that
Estevan Gomez, a Spanish navigator who followed Verrazano in 1525, called it
"St. Anthony's River," a name now preserved as that of one of the hills of the
Highlands, and it is claimed that French traders visited the river, in 1540, and
established a château on Castle [FN-2] Island, at Albany, [FN-3] and called the
river "Norumbega." It may be conceded that possibly French traders did have a
post on Castle Island, but "Norumbega" was obviously conferred on a wide
district of country. It is an Abnaki term and belonged to the dialect spoken in
Maine, where it became more or less familiar to French traders as early as 1535.
That those traders did locate trading posts on the Penobscot, and that Champlain
searched for their remains in 1604, are facts of record. The name means "Quiet"
or "Still Water." It would probably be applicable to that section of Hudson's
River known as "Stillwater," north of Albany, but the evidence is wanted that it
was so applied. Had it been applied by the tribes to any place on Hudson's
River, it would have remained as certainly as Menaté remained at New York.
[FN-1] "Mohegans is an anglicism primarily applied to the small band of Pequots under
Uncas." (Trumbull.) While of the same linguistic stock, neither the name or the history of
Uncas's clan should be confused with that of the Mahicani of Hudson's River.

[FN-2] Introduced by the Dutch—Kasteel. The Indians had no such word. The Delawares
called a house or hut or a town that was palisaded, Moenach, and Zeisberger used the same
word for "fence"—an enclosure palisaded around. Eliot wrote Wonkonous, "fort."

[FN-3] It is claimed that the walls of this fort were found by Hendrick Christiansen, in
1614; that they were measured by him and found to cover an area of 58 feet; that the fort
was restored by the Dutch and occupied by them until they were driven out by a freshet,
occasioned by the breaking up of the ice in the river in the spring of 1617; that the Dutch
then built what was subsequently known as Fort Orange, at the mouth of the Tawalsentha,
or Norman's Kill, about two miles south of the present State street, Albany, and that Castle
Island took that name from the French château—all of which is possible, but for conclusive
reasons why it should not be credited, the student may consult "Norumbega" in Winsor's
"Narrative and Critical History of America." Wrote Dr. Trumbull: "Theuet, in La
Cosmographie Universella, gives an account of his visit, in 1656, to 'one of the finest rivers
in the whole world, which we call Norumbeque, and the aboriginees Agoncy,' now
Penobscot Bay."
 Manhattan, now so written, does not appear in the Journal of Hudson's
exploration of the river in 1609. On a Spanish-English map of 1610, "Made for
James I," and sent to Philip III by Velasco in letter of March 22, 1611, [FN-1]
Mannahatin is written as the name of the east side of the river, and Mannahata
as that of the west side. From the former Manhattan, and from it also the name
of the Indians "among whom" the Dutch made settlement in 1623-4, otherwise
known by the general name of Wickquaskecks, as well as the name of the entire
Dutch possessions. [FN-2] Presumably the entries on the Spanish-English map
were copied from Hudson's chart, for which there was ample time after his
return to England. Possibly they may have been copied by Hudson, who wrote
that his voyage "had been suggested" by some "letters and maps" which "had
been sent to him" by Capt. Smith from Virginia. Evidently the notations are
English, and evidently, also, Hudson, or his mate, Juet, had a chart from his own
tracing or from that of a previous explorer, which he forwarded to his
employers, or of which they had a copy, when he wrote in his Journal: "On that
side of the river called Mannahata," as a reference by which his employers
could identify the side of the river on which the Half-Moon anchored, [FN-3]
Presumably the chart was drawn by Hudson and forwarded with his report, and
that to him belongs the honor of reducing to an orthographic form the first
aboriginal name of record on the river which now bears his name. Five years
after Hudson's advent Adriaen Block wrote Manhates as the name of what is
now New York Island, and later, De Vries wrote Manates as the name of Staten
Island, both forms having the same meaning, i. e., "Small island." There have
been several interpretations of Mannahatin, the most analytical and most
generally accepted being by the late Dr. J. H. Trumbull: "From Menatey (Del.),
'Island'—Mannahata 'The Island,' the reference being to the main land or to
Long Island as the large island. Menatan (Hudson's Mannah-atin, -an or -in, the
indefinite or diminutive form), 'The small island,' or the smaller of the two
principal islands, the Manhates of Adriaen Block. [FN-4] Manáhtons, 'People of
the Island,' Manáhatanesen, 'People of the small islands.'" [FN-5] The Eastern-
Algonquian word for "Island" (English notation), is written Munnoh, with
formative -an (Mun-nohan). It appears of record, occasionally, in the vicinity of
New York, presumably introduced by interpreters or English scribes. The usual
form is the Lenape Menaté, Chippeway Minnis, "Small island," classed also as
Old Algonquian, or generic, may be met in the valley of the Hudson, but the
instances are not clear. It is simply a dialectic equivalent of Del. Ménates. (See
Monach'nong.) Van Curler wrote in his Mohawk vocabulary (1635), "Kanon-
newaga, Manhattan Island." The late J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of
Ethnology, wrote me: "In the alphabet of this office the name may be
transliterated Kanoñnò'ge. It signifies 'Place of Reeds.'" Perhaps what was
known as the "Reed Valley" was referred to, near which Van Twiller had a
tobacco plantation where the Indians of all nations came to trade. (See
Saponickan.) The lower part of the island was probably more or less a district of
reed swamps.

[FN-1] Brown's "Genesis of the United States," 327, 457, 459, ii, 80.

[FN-2] Colonial History of New York.

[FN-3] Hudson anchored in the bay near Hoboken. Near by his anchorage he noticed that
"there was a cliff that looked of the color of white green." This cliff is near Elysian Fields
at Hoboken. (Broadhead.) The cliff is now known as Castle Point.

[FN-4] The reference to Adriaen Block is presumably to the "Carte Figurative" of 1614-16,
now regarded as from Block's chart.

[FN-5] "Composition of Indian Geographical Names," p. 22.

Pagganck, so written in Indian deed of 1637, as the name of Governor's

Island—Peconuc, Denton, is an equivalent of Pagán'nak, meaning literally "Nut
Island." Also written Pachgan, as in Pachganunschi, "White walnut trees."
(Zeisb.) Denton explained, "Because excellent nut trees grew there." [FN] The
Dutch called it "der Nooten Eilandt," literally "The Walnut Island," from
whence the modern name, "Nutten Island." The island was purchased from the
Indian owners by Director Wouter van Twiller, from whose occupation, and its
subsequent use as a demense of the governors of the Province, its present name.

[FN] Denton's "Description of New York," p. 29. Ward's and Blackwell's islands were sold
to the Dutch by the Marechawicks, of Long Island, in 1636-7. Governor's Island was sold
in the same year by the Tappans, Hackinsacks and Nyacks, the grantors signing themselves
as "hereditary owners." Later deeds were signed by chiefs of the Raritans and Hackinsacks.
 Minnisais is not a record name. It was conferred on Bedloe's Island by Dr.
Schoolcraft from the Ojibwe or Chippeway dialect, [FN] in which it means
"Small island."

[FN] The Objibwe (Objibwai) were a nation of three tribes living northwest of the great
lakes, of which the Ojibwai or Chippeway represented the Eagle totem. It is claimed by
some writers that their language stands at the head of the Algonquian tongues. This claim is
disputed on behalf of the Cree, the Shawanoe, and the Lenape or Delaware. It is not
assumed that Ojibwe (Chippeway) terms are not Algonquian, but that they do not strictly
belong to the dialects of the Hudson's river families. Rev. Heckewelder saw no particular
difference between the Ojibwe and the Lenape except in the French and the English forms.
Ojibwe terms may always be quoted in explanations of the Lenape.

Kiosh, or "Gull Island," was conferred on Ellis Island by Dr. Schoolcraft

from the Ojibwe dialect. The interpretation is correct presumably.

Tenkenas is of record as the Indian name of what is now known as Ward's

Island. [FN] It appears in deed of 1636-7. It means "Small island," from Tenke
(Len.), "little."

[FN] The Dutch called the island Onvruchtbaar, "Unfruitful, barren." The English adopted
the signification, "Barren," which soon became corrupted to "Barrent's," to which was
added "Great" to distinguish it from Randal's Island, which was called "Little Barrent's
Island." Barn Island is another corruption. Both islands were "barren" no doubt.

Monatun was conferred by Dr. Schoolcraft on the whirlpool off Hallet's

Cove, with the explanation, "A word conveying in its multiplied forms the
various meanings of violent, forcible, dangerous, etc." Dr. Schoolcraft
introduced the word as the derivative of Manhatan, which, however, is very far
from being explained by it. Hell-gate, a vulgar orthography of Dutch Hellegat,
has long been the popular name of the place. It was conferred by Adriaen Block,
in 1614-16, to the dangerous strait known as the East River, from a strait in
Zealand, which, presumably, was so called from Greek Helle, as heard in
Hellespont—"Sea of Helle"—now known as the Dardanelles—which received
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