Unit I

Introduction - Nutrients and their importance in ruminants, non-ruminants and poultry - Energy value of
various nutrients their importance and calorimetry Nutrient absorption and biochemical changes
involved - Introduction to BMR, SDA, PER and Biological value for protein - Requirements of different
nutrients in animals - Role of nutrients in growth and production of animals – Bio-availability of nutrients
in different food sources.

NUTRIENTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE IN RUMINANTS

I. Overview of Ruminant Digestive Physiology

Ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, deer) have a four-compartment stomach:

1. Rumen (fermentation vat)

2. Reticulum (hardware stomach)
3. Omasum (water absorption)
4. Abomasum (true stomach, acidic digestion)

Key Feature: Microbial fermentation (bacteria, protozoa, fungi) breaks down fibrous feed into
absorbable nutrients.

II. Essential Nutrients & Their Roles

1. Carbohydrates

A. Structural (Fiber)

 Cellulose & Hemicellulose → Fermented by microbes into Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs):
o Acetate (60-70%) → Milk fat synthesis, energy.
o Propionate (15-20%) → Gluconeogenesis (liver converts to glucose).
o Butyrate (10-15%) → Rumen epithelial energy.
 Lignin → Indigestible; reduces overall digestibility.

B. Non-Structural (Starches & Sugars)

 Found in grains (corn, barley).

 Rapid fermentation → Risk of ruminal acidosis (pH <5.5).

2. Proteins

A. Rumen Degradable Protein (RDP)

  Broken down by microbes → Ammonia (NH₃) + Carbon skeletons.
 Microbes use NH₃ to synthesize microbial protein (60-80% of protein supply).
 Non-Protein Nitrogen (NPN) sources (e.g., urea) can replace part of RDP.

B. Rumen Undegradable Protein (RUP) / Bypass Protein

 Escapes rumen → Digested in abomasum (e.g., heat-treated soybean meal).

 Critical for high-producing animals (dairy cows, growing lambs).

3. Fats/Lipids

 >6% fat in diet can inhibit microbial activity (coats feed particles).
 Protected fats (e.g., calcium soaps of fatty acids) bypass rumen.
 Essential fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic) required but often sufficient in forage.

4. Minerals

Mineral Function Deficiency Signs Toxicity

Bone, milk, muscle
Calcium (Ca) Milk fever (hypocalcemia). Urinary calculi.
contraction.
Energy metabolism (ATP), Pica (eating dirt), poor Calcification of soft
Phosphorus (P)
bone. growth. tissues.
Magnesium Enzyme cofactor, nerve Grass tetany
Diarrhea.
(Mg) function. (hypomagnesemia).
Cobalt (Co) Vitamin B₁₂ synthesis. Wasting disease, anemia. Rare.
Antioxidant (glutathione
Selenium (Se) White muscle disease. Blind staggers.
peroxidase).

5. Vitamins

 B Vitamins (B1, B2, B12, etc.): Synthesized by rumen microbes (usually no supplementation
needed).
 Vitamin A: Required (forage loses it upon drying). Deficiency → Night blindness.
 Vitamin D: Sunlight exposure usually sufficient.
 Vitamin E: Works with Se as antioxidant. Deficiency → Muscular dystrophy.

6. Water

 Rumen contents = 85-90% water → Critical for microbial activity.

 A lactating cow drinks ~100-150L/day.

III. Biochemical Pathways in Ruminant Nutrition

1. VFA Production (Rumen Fermentation)

 Cellulose → (Microbes) → Glucose → Pyruvate → VFAs + CO₂ + CH₄ (methane, energy

loss)
 Propionate pathway: Key for glucose production (via gluconeogenesis in liver).

2. Microbial Protein Synthesis

 NH₃ (from RDP) + Carbon skeletons → Microbial amino acids → Flows to abomasum for
digestion.

3. Fat Digestion

 Rumen biohydrogenation: Unsaturated fats (linoleic acid) → Saturated fats (stearic acid).
 Bypass fats escape rumen → Digested in small intestine.

IV. Practical Implications in Ruminant Feeding

1. Forage Quality

 High-quality forage (young grass, legumes) = High digestibility, more VFAs.

 Low-quality forage (straw, mature grass) = High lignin, low energy.

2. Grain Feeding & Acidosis Risk

 Excess starch → Lactic acid buildup → Rumen pH drops → Microbial death.

 Prevention: Gradual grain introduction, buffers (sodium bicarbonate).

3. Protein Supplementation Strategies

 Low-quality forage diets: Add urea (NPN) to boost microbial protein.

 High-performance animals: Increase RUP (e.g., fish meal, roasted soybeans).

4. Mineral Balancing

 Ca:P Ratio (2:1 ideal) → Prevents urinary calculi or bone issues.

 DCAD (Dietary Cation-Anion Difference) in dairy cows: Affects milk fever risk.

V. Summary Table: Nutrient Deficiencies in Ruminants

Nutrient Deficiency Signs Solution
Energy Increase fermentable carbs (grains, better
Weight loss, low milk yield.
(Carbohydrates) forage).
Poor growth, low milk
Protein Add RDP (urea) or RUP (bypass protein).
protein.
Provide mineral supplements (dicalcium
Phosphorus Pica, weak bones.
phosphate).
Cobalt Anemia, lethargy. Inject B12 or add cobalt sulfate to feed.
Selenium White muscle disease. Se-enriched mineral mix.

Nutrients and Their Importance in Non-Ruminants and

Poultry
I. Digestive System Overview

Non-ruminants (pigs, horses, rabbits) and poultry have a simple stomach (monogastric) system,
but key differences exist:

A. Pigs

 Stomach: Acidic (HCl + pepsin) for protein digestion.

 Small Intestine: Primary site for enzymatic digestion (pancreatic amylase, lipase, proteases).
 Large Intestine: Microbial fermentation (limited fiber digestion).

B. Poultry

 Crop: Temporary feed storage.

 Proventriculus: Glandular stomach (HCl + pepsin).
 Gizzard: Muscular grinding organ (uses grit).
 Ceca: Microbial fermentation (minor role).

C. Horses (Non-Ruminant Herbivores)

 Cecum & Colon: Major fermentation sites (similar to rumen but post-gastric).

II. Essential Nutrients & Their Roles

1. Carbohydrates

 Digestible Carbs (Starch, Sugars):

 o Broken down by amylase (saliva, pancreas) → Glucose → Energy.
o Poultry: High starch utilization (corn, wheat-based diets).
 Fiber (Non-Starch Polysaccharides - NSP):
o Pigs: Limited digestion (some in large intestine).
o Poultry: Soluble NSPs (e.g., β-glucans) increase digesta viscosity → reduce
nutrient absorption.
o Horses: Fermented in cecum → VFAs (major energy source).

2. Proteins & Amino Acids

 Essential Amino Acids (EAAs): Must be supplied in diet (e.g., lysine, methionine, threonine).
o Pigs: Lysine is the first-limiting AA in corn-soy diets.
o Poultry: Methionine is critical for feathering and egg production.
 Protein Quality: Measured by digestibility (e.g., soybean meal > feather meal).

3. Fats

 Concentrated energy source (2.25x more energy than carbs).

 Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs):
o Linoleic acid (ω-6) → Required for skin, egg production.
o Linolenic acid (ω-3) → Important for brain development (piglets, chicks).
 Poultry: Fats improve feed palatability and reduce dust.

4. Minerals

Mineral Function Deficiency (Examples)

Rickets (young), thin eggshells
Calcium (Ca) Bone, eggshell formation.
(layers).
Phosphorus (P) Energy metabolism (ATP). Poor growth, pica (dirt eating).
Sodium (Na) & Chloride Reduced growth, cannibalism
Osmotic balance, nerve function.
(Cl) (poultry).
Zinc (Zn) Enzyme cofactor, skin health. Parakeratosis (pigs), poor feathering.
Bone development, egg
Manganese (Mn) Perosis (slipped tendon in poultry).
production.

5. Vitamins

 Fat-Soluble (A, D, E, K): Stored in liver; must be supplemented.

o Vitamin D₃: Critical for Ca absorption (poultry more sensitive than pigs).
o Vitamin E + Se: Antioxidant; deficiency → muscular dystrophy.
 Water-Soluble (B-complex, C):
o Biotin: Prevents footpad dermatitis (poultry).
o Choline: Needed for liver function (prevent fatty liver in layers).
6. Water

 Pigs: Drink 2-5L/day (growers); lactating sows need 15-30L/day.

 Poultry: Water intake ≈ 2x feed intake (critical for thermoregulation).

III. Key Differences from Ruminants

1. No microbial protein synthesis → All essential AAs must be provided.

2. Limited fiber digestion (except horses/rabbits).
3. Higher need for pre-formed vitamins (B vitamins not synthesized in gut).

IV. Practical Feeding Considerations

A. Pigs

 Phase Feeding: Adjust protein/energy levels for weaners, growers, finishers.

 Antinutritional Factors (ANFs):
o Trypsin inhibitors (raw soybeans) → Reduce protein digestibility.
o Phytate → Binds minerals (use phytase enzyme).

B. Poultry

 Energy-Protein Balance: High-energy diets for broilers; high calcium for layers.
 Feed Form: Pellets reduce waste vs. mash.

C. Horses

 Forage-first diets (≥1% body weight as forage/day).

 Starch overload risk (colic, laminitis).

V. Deficiency Symptoms & Solutions

Nutrient Deficiency Signs Solution

Lysine (Pigs) Slow growth, poor FCR. Supplement L-lysine HCl.
Poor feathering, low egg
Methionine (Poultry) Add DL-methionine.
mass.
Vitamin D (Layers) Thin/soft eggshells. Provide D₃ in feed or sunlight.
Zinc (Pigs) Cracked skin, parakeratosis. Zinc oxide in diet.
VI. Summary Tables

1. Key Amino Acids for Non-Ruminants

Amino
Role Main Sources
Acid
Lysine Muscle growth, milk production. Soybean meal, synthetic lysine.
Methionine Feathers, egg production. Fish meal, synthetic methionine.
Threonine Gut health, immunity. Wheat, legumes.

2. Energy Sources Comparison

Feedstuff Pigs Poultry

Corn High starch, palatable. Primary energy source.
Needs enzyme
Wheat Good if ground finely.
(xylanase).
Soybean Oil High energy, expensive. Improves feed efficiency.

Energy Value of Nutrients, Their Importance, and

Calorimetry
I. Introduction to Energy in Animal Nutrition

Energy is the most critical nutrient because it drives metabolism, growth, reproduction, and
maintenance. Unlike other nutrients, energy itself is not a chemical substance but is derived from
the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

II. Energy Values of Nutrients

1. Gross Energy (GE)

 Definition: Total heat released when a feed is completely burned in a bomb calorimeter.
 Values (kcal/g):
o Carbohydrates: 4.1
o Proteins: 5.6
o Fats: 9.4
 Limitation: Does not account for digestibility or metabolic losses.

2. Digestible Energy (DE)

  Definition: GE – Fecal Energy (energy lost in feces).
 Used mainly for pigs and horses.
 Equation:
DE=GE−Fecal Energy

3. Metabolizable Energy (ME)

 Definition: DE – Urinary + Gaseous Energy (methane, urea).

 Most common measure for poultry.
 Equation:
ME=DE−(Urinary Energy+Gaseous Energy)

Correction for Nitrogen (N):

o In poultry, N-corrected ME (MEn) is used because excess protein increases urea loss.

4. Net Energy (NE)

 Definition: ME – Heat Increment (HI).

 Most accurate for ruminants and swine because it accounts for energy lost as heat during
digestion.
 Components:
o Maintenance (NEₘ): Energy for basic bodily functions.
o Production (NEₚ): Energy for growth, milk, eggs.

III. Calorimetry: Measuring Energy

1. Direct Calorimetry

 Principle: Measures heat production from an animal in a sealed chamber.

 Uses:
o Research on metabolic rate (e.g., Basal Metabolic Rate, BMR).
o Measures Heat Increment (HI) of feed.
 Limitation: Expensive, impractical for farm use.

2. Indirect Calorimetry

 Principle: Estimates energy expenditure via O₂ consumption & CO₂ production.

 Respiratory Quotient (RQ):
RQ=CO2 produced/O2 consumed

o Carbohydrates: RQ = 1.0
 o Fats: RQ = 0.7
o Proteins: RQ = 0.8
 Uses:
o Determines energy substrate being oxidized (carbs vs. fats).

3. Comparative Slaughter Technique

 Principle: Measures body composition changes (fat, protein) before and after feeding.
 Used for NE estimation in growing animals.

IV. Importance of Energy in Animal Production

1. Growth & Feed Efficiency

 Low energy → Poor growth, high FCR (Feed Conversion Ratio).

 High energy → Faster weight gain (broilers, pigs) but risk of obesity.

2. Reproduction

 Dairy cows: Negative energy balance → Ketosis, reduced fertility.

 Layers: Low energy → Fewer eggs, small egg size.

3. Thermoregulation

 Cold stress: Animals burn more energy to maintain body temperature.

 Heat stress: Reduced feed intake → Lower energy availability.

V. Practical Applications

1. Energy Systems Used in Feeding

Preferred Energy
Animal Reason
System
Poultry ME (MEn) Accounts for nitrogen loss.
Pigs DE or NE NE better for growth models.
Ruminants NE Accounts for fermentation heat.

2. Energy Adjustments in Diets

 High-energy diets:
 o Broilers: Corn + soybean oil.
o Lactating sows: Added fats.
 Low-energy diets:
o Gestating sows: High fiber to prevent obesity.

3. Common Energy Sources

Energy (kcal ME/kg,

Source Notes
Poultry)
Corn 3,300 High starch, palatable.
Soybean Oil 8,800 Highest energy, expensive.
Wheat 3,100 Needs enzyme (xylanase).

VI. Summary Tables

1. Energy Partitioning in Animals

Term Calculation Significance

Gross Energy (GE) Total combustion Baseline measure.
Digestible Energy (DE) GE – Fecal Energy Used for pigs/horses.
Metabolizable Energy
DE – (Urine + Gas) Standard for poultry.
(ME)
Net Energy (NE) ME – Heat Increment Most precise for ruminants.

2. Calorimetry Methods Comparison

Method Measures Pros & Cons

Direct Calorimetry Heat production Accurate but costly.
Indirect Calorimetry O₂/CO₂ exchange More practical.
Comparative
Body composition Slow but precise.
Slaughter

Nutrient Absorption and Biochemical Changes

Involved
I. Overview of Nutrient Absorption

Nutrient absorption occurs primarily in the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) via:

 Passive diffusion (fat-soluble vitamins, water).

  Facilitated diffusion (fructose).
 Active transport (glucose, amino acids, minerals).
 Endocytosis (immunoglobulins in newborns).

II. Macronutrient Absorption & Biochemical Pathways

1. Carbohydrates

A. Digestion:

 Mouth: Salivary amylase (minimal in non-ruminants).

 Small intestine: Pancreatic amylase → maltose, lactose, sucrose.
 Brush border enzymes:
o Maltase → Glucose + Glucose.
o Lactase → Glucose + Galactose.
o Sucrase → Glucose + Fructose.

B. Absorption:

 Glucose/Galactose: SGLT1 (Na+-dependent active transport).

 Fructose: GLUT5 (facilitated diffusion).
 Final uptake into blood: GLUT2 transporter.

C. Biochemical Fate:

 Portal vein → Liver:

o Galactose → Converted to glucose.
o Fructose → Metabolized to pyruvate (glycolysis).

2. Proteins

A. Digestion:

 Stomach: HCl denatures proteins; pepsin breaks them into peptides.

 Small intestine:
o Pancreatic proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin) → Oligopeptides.
o Brush border peptidases → Amino acids (AAs).

B. Absorption:

 Free AAs:
o Na+-dependent transporters (e.g., B⁰, B⁺).
o H+-dependent (PEPT1) for di/tripeptides.
  Transcytosis: Intact immunoglobulins in neonates (colostrum).

C. Biochemical Fate:

 Portal vein → Liver:

o Used for protein synthesis or deaminated for energy (→ urea cycle).

3. Lipids

A. Digestion:

 Emulsification: Bile salts (from liver) break fat into micelles.

 Enzymatic action: Pancreatic lipase → 2-monoglycerides + FFAs.

B. Absorption:

 Micelles deliver lipids to enterocytes.

 Resynthesis:
o Triglycerides (TGs) → Packaged into chylomicrons.
o Short-chain FFAs → Directly enter blood.

C. Biochemical Fate:

 Chylomicrons → Lymphatic system → Blood → Tissues (adipose, muscle).

III. Micronutrient Absorption

1. Minerals

Mineral Absorption Site Mechanism Regulation

Calcium (Ca²⁺) Duodenum Active (vitamin D-dependent). PTH, calcitriol.
Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) Duodenum DMT1 (Fe²⁺), heme carrier. Hepcidin (blocks excess).
Zinc (Zn²⁺) Jejunum ZIP transporters. Metallothionein binding.

2. Vitamins

 Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K): Absorbed with fats (micelle-dependent).

 Water-soluble (B, C):
o B12: Requires intrinsic factor (stomach) → Ileum.
o C: Active transport (SVCT1).
IV. Species-Specific Adaptations

1. Ruminants

 VFAs: Absorbed directly from rumen (acetate → milk fat).

 Bypass proteins: Avoid rumen → Abomasum digestion.

2. Poultry

 Ceca: Ferments fiber → VFAs (minor energy source).

 Fat absorption: Highly efficient (90%+).

3. Pigs

 Large intestine: Ferments fiber → VFAs (5–15% of energy).

V. Biochemical Pathways Post-Absorption

1. Carbohydrates → Energy

 Glycolysis: Glucose → Pyruvate → ATP (aerobic) or lactate (anaerobic).

 Gluconeogenesis: Propionate (ruminants), AAs → Glucose.

2. Proteins → Synthesis or Catabolism

 Anabolism: AAs → Muscle, enzymes, hormones.

 Catabolism: Deamination → Urea (liver) → Excreted.

3. Fats → Storage or Energy

 Lipogenesis: Excess glucose → TGs (adipose).

 β-oxidation: FFAs → Acetyl-CoA → ATP.

VI. Factors Affecting Absorption

1. Enhancers

 Vitamin C: Increases non-heme iron absorption.

 Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs): Direct portal absorption.

2. Inhibitors
  Phytates: Bind minerals (Ca, Zn, Fe).
 Tannins: Reduce protein digestibility.

VII. Clinical Implications

1. Malabsorption Syndromes

 Lactose intolerance: Lack of lactase → Osmotic diarrhea.

 Celiac disease: Gluten damage to villi → Reduced AA/mineral uptake.

2. Nutritional Interventions

 Enzyme supplements: Phytase (for phytate), lipase (steatorrhea).

 Chelated minerals: Improve bioavailability (e.g., Zn-methionine).

VIII. Summary Tables

1. Absorption Mechanisms

Nutrien
Transporter Energy Requirement
t
Glucose SGLT1, GLUT2 Active (Na+/ATP).
AAs B⁰, B⁺, PEPT1 Active/H+ gradient.
Ca²⁺ TRPV6, Calbindin Vitamin D-dependent.

2. Key Enzymes in Digestion

Enzyme Source Substrate → Product

Amylase Pancreas Starch → Maltose.
Trypsin Pancreas Proteins → Peptides.
Lactase Brush border Lactose → Glucose + Galactose.

Introduction to BMR, SDA, PER, and Biological Value

of Protein
I. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

1. Definition
  BMR = Minimum energy required to sustain vital functions (respiration, circulation,
temperature) in a fasted, resting, thermoneutral state.
 Measured in kcal/day or kJ/day.

2. Factors Affecting BMR

Factor Effect on BMR Example

Larger animals → Higher BMR (but lower
Body Size Elephant vs. mouse.
per kg).
Lean Mass Muscle is metabolically active → ↑ BMR. Athletes have higher BMR.
Older animals need less maintenance
Age Declines with age (reduced muscle mass).
energy.
Thyroid T3/T4 ↑ BMR (stimulate oxidative
Hypothyroidism → Low BMR.
Hormones metabolism).
Smaller species (birds) have higher
Species Poultry > Cattle.
BMR/kg.

3. Measuring BMR

 Direct Calorimetry: Measures heat production.

 Indirect Calorimetry: Uses O₂ consumption & CO₂ production.
 Respiratory Quotient (RQ): Indicates energy substrate used:
o 0.7 = Fats, 1.0 = Carbs, 0.8 = Proteins.

II. Specific Dynamic Action (SDA) / Heat Increment (HI)

1. Definition

 SDA = Energy expended for digestion, absorption, metabolism of food.

 Accounts for ~10-15% of ME intake.

2. Causes of SDA

 Protein synthesis (highest SDA).

 Nutrient transport (active uptake).
 Detoxification (e.g., urea synthesis).

3. SDA by Nutrient

Nutrient SDA (% of Energy) Reason

Proteins 20-30% High cost of deamination & urea synthesis.
Carbohydrate 5-10% Lower processing cost.
Nutrient SDA (% of Energy) Reason
s
Fats 0-5% Minimal metabolic effort.

4. Practical Implications

 High-protein diets increase heat production → Useful in cold climates.

 Low-SDA diets (high-fat) for heat stress management.

III. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)

1. Definition

 PER = Weight gain (g) per gram of protein consumed.

 Formula:
PER=Weight Gain (g)/Protein Intake (g)

2. Limitations

 Overestimates low-quality protein (e.g., gelatin promotes growth but lacks essential AAs).
 Doesn’t account for maintenance (only measures growth).

3. PER Values

Protein Source PER

Egg (reference) 3.9
Casein (milk) 2.5
Soybean 2.2
Wheat gluten 0.8

IV. Biological Value (BV) of Protein

1. Definition

 BV = % of absorbed protein retained for growth/maintenance.

 Formula:
BV=(N Retained / N Absorbed) ×100

2. Key Points

 Egg white = 100 BV (reference standard).

  Ruminants: Microbial protein has BV ~80 (high-quality but lacks some EAAs).

3. BV of Common Proteins

Protein Source BV
Whey 104
Fish 92
Corn 60

4. Factors Affecting BV

 Amino Acid Balance: Lysine, methionine often limiting.

 Digestibility: Plant proteins (e.g., soy) have lower BV due to fiber/antinutrients.

V. Comparison of Protein Quality Metrics

Metric Measures Pros Cons

Ignores maintenance
PER Growth per protein unit. Simple, practical.
needs.
Retention of absorbed Accounts for AA Requires N-balance
BV
protein. balance. studies.
NPU (Net Protein Combines BV &
Holistic. Complex to calculate.
Utilization) digestibility.

VI. Practical Applications

1. Feed Formulation

 High-BV proteins (whey, fishmeal) for young animals.

 Lower-BV proteins (soy, canola) for maintenance diets.

2. Human Nutrition

 PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility-Corrected AA Score) now preferred over BV.

3. Research Use

 SDA studies to optimize thermal comfort in livestock.

VII. Summary Tables

1. Energy Terms Comparison

Ter
Definition Key Use
m
BMR Baseline energy at rest. Calculate maintenance needs.
SDA Post-meal energy cost. Diet-induced thermogenesis.
ME Energy after fecal/urinary loss. Poultry/swine diets.
NE ME minus heat increment. Ruminant/superior models.

2. Protein Quality Metrics

Metric Best For Worst For

PER Growing rats/poultry. Adult/maintenance diets.
BV Human/animal AA needs. Low-digestibility proteins.

Nutrient Requirements in Animals

I. Introduction to Nutrient Requirements

Nutrient requirements vary by species, age, production stage (growth, lactation, egg-laying),
and environment. Requirements are expressed as:

 % of diet (for protein, fat, fiber)

 mg/kg or ppm (for minerals, vitamins)
 kcal/kg (for energy)

II. Key Nutrients & Their Requirements

1. Energy

 Measured as: DE (pigs), ME (poultry), NE (ruminants).

 Requirements:
o Dairy cow (lactating): 25-30 Mcal NE/day
o Broiler chicken: 3200-3400 kcal ME/kg diet
o Pregnant sow: 6000-7000 kcal DE/day

2. Protein & Amino Acids

  Crude Protein (CP):
oDairy cow: 16-18% CP
oBroiler starter: 22-24% CP
oLayer hen: 16-18% CP
 Essential AAs:
o Pigs: Lysine (1.2-1.5%), Methionine (0.3-0.4%)
o Poultry: Methionine (0.5%), Lysine (1.1%)

3. Minerals

Mineral Dairy Cow Broiler Pig (Grower)

Calcium (Ca) 0.7-1.0% 1.0% 0.6-0.8%
Phosphorus
0.3-0.4% 0.45% 0.5-0.6%
(P)
Sodium (Na) 0.2% 0.2% 0.1-0.2%

4. Vitamins

 Vitamin A: 5000 IU/kg (poultry), 3000 IU/kg (swine).

 Vitamin D3: 2000 IU/kg (most species).
 Vitamin E: 50 IU/kg (anti-stress in poultry).

III. Species-Specific Requirements

1. Ruminants (Cattle, Sheep, Goats)

 Forage-based diets:
CP: 12-16% (higher for lactating cows).
o
Energy: Focus on fiber digestion (VFAs).
o
 Mineral priority: Ca, P, Mg, Co (for B12 synthesis).

2. Poultry

 Broilers:
o High energy (3200 kcal ME/kg).
o High methionine (0.5%) for feathering.
 Layers:
o Extra Ca (4%) for eggshells.

3. Swine

 Weaners:
 High digestibility (milk proteins, cooked grains).
o
Lysine: 1.4-1.6%.
o
 Gestating sows:
o Low energy (to prevent obesity).

4. Horses

 Forage: ≥1% body weight/day.

 Starch limitation: <20% of diet (avoid colic).

IV. Factors Affecting Requirements

1. Production Stage

Stage Key Need

Growth High protein, lysine.
Lactation High energy, Ca, P.
Egg-laying Extra Ca, methionine.

2. Environment

 Cold stress: ↑ Energy (more fats/carbs).

 Heat stress: ↑ Electrolytes (Na, K, Cl).

3. Genetics

 High-yielding breeds: Need more nutrients (e.g., Holstein cows vs. local breeds).

V. Calculating Requirements

1. Energy (Example: Dairy Cow)

 Maintenance: 10 Mcal NE/day.

 Milk production: +1 Mcal NE/kg milk.
 Total for 20 kg milk/day: 10 + 20 = 30 Mcal NE/day.

2. Protein (Example: Broiler)

 Diet: 22% CP.

 Feed intake: 100 g/day → 22 g CP/day.
3. Calcium (Example: Laying Hen)

 Eggshell = 2 g Ca.
 Diet: 4% Ca → 4 g per 100 g feed.
 Daily need: 4 g Ca (if 100% absorbed; real need higher due to efficiency).

VI. Practical Feeding Guidelines

1. Ruminants

 Forage first, then balance with grains/minerals.

 Urea: Can replace 30% of RDP in adult cattle.

2. Poultry

 Phase feeding:
o Starter (0-3 weeks): 24% CP.
o Finisher (4-6 weeks): 20% CP.

3. Swine

 Split-sex feeding: Gilts need more lysine than barrows.

VII. Deficiency & Excess Symptoms

Nutrient Deficiency Excess

Energy Weight loss, low milk. Obesity, fatty liver.
Protein Poor growth, edema. Kidney damage (NH₃ toxicity).
Ca Rickets, milk fever. Urinary calculi.
Vitamin
Weak bones, thin eggshells. Soft tissue calcification.
D

VIII. Summary Tables

1. Quick Reference for Major Species

Animal CP (%) Energy (kcal/kg) Key Limiting Nutrient

Dairy Cow 16-18 2500-3000 NE Methionine (RUP).
Broiler 22-24 3200-3400 ME Methionine, lysine.
Animal CP (%) Energy (kcal/kg) Key Limiting Nutrient
Pig
18-20 3300 DE Lysine, threonine.
(Grower)

2. Mineral Mix Example (Per kg Diet)

 Ca: 10 g
 P: 5 g
 NaCl: 2 g
 Zn: 100 mg

Role of Nutrients in Growth and Production of Animals

I. Essential Nutrients and Their Functions

1. Energy (Carbohydrates & Fats)

 Growth: Provides ATP for tissue synthesis (muscle, bone).

 Milk Production: 60-70% of milk energy comes from VFAs (ruminants) or glucose (non-
ruminants).
 Egg Production: Yolk formation requires fat (~30% of egg content).

2. Proteins & Amino Acids

 Muscle Development: Lysine, methionine critical for myofibril synthesis.

 Wool/Hair Growth: Sulfur-containing AAs (cystine, methionine).
 Milk Casein: 80% of milk protein depends on dietary RUP (ruminants).

3. Minerals

Mineral Role in Growth/Production

Calcium (Ca) Bone growth (young), milk/eggshell (adults).
Phosphorus
Skeletal development, ATP for lactation.
(P)
Zinc (Zn) Enzyme cofactor (DNA synthesis → cell division).
Iron (Fe) Hemoglobin (oxygen transport → growth).

4. Vitamins

 Vitamin A: Epithelial health (mammary gland, gut integrity).

 Vitamin D: Ca/P absorption → prevents rickets.
 Vitamin E: Antioxidant (protects muscle membranes).
II. Nutrient Impact by Production Stage

1. Growth Phase (Young Animals)

 Protein Priority: High lysine for muscle (e.g., broilers: 1.2% lysine).
 Energy: Supports rapid cell division (e.g., starter diets = 3000 kcal ME/kg).
 Minerals: Ca/P ratio 2:1 for bone development.

2. Reproduction (Pregnancy/Gestation)

 Embryo Development: Folate (B9), choline prevent neural tube defects.

 Placental Growth: Arginine ↑ blood flow (pigs/horses).

3. Lactation

 Energy Demand: 1 kg milk = 750 kcal NE (dairy cows).

 Protein: ↑ RUP to bypass rumen (e.g., 40% of CP in high-yield cows).

4. Egg Production

 Yolk Formation: Lipoproteins (liver) require choline, methionine.

 Eggshell: 2 g Ca/egg → Layers need 4% dietary Ca.

III. Species-Specific Roles

1. Ruminants (Milk/Meat)

 VFAs: Acetate → milk fat; propionate → glucose → lactose.

 Bypass Protein: Directly supplies AAs for milk casein.

2. Poultry (Eggs/Meat)

 Methionine: Feathering + egg production.

 Omega-3s: Enriched eggs (flaxseed in feed).

3. Swine (Lean Meat)

 Lysine: Maximizes muscle gain (limit fat deposition).

 Carnitine: Enhances lean-to-fat ratio.

IV. Key Biochemical Pathways

1. Muscle Protein Synthesis

 AAs → mTOR activation → Ribosomal translation → Myofibrils.

 Limiting AA (e.g., lysine) halts the process.

2. Milk Synthesis (Ruminants)

 Acetate → Fatty acids (milk fat).

 Blood glucose → Lactose (osmotic driver for milk volume).

3. Eggshell Calcification (Poultry)

 Ca²⁺ + HCO₃⁻ → CaCO₃ (shell), mediated by osteopontin.

V. Practical Implications

1. Feed Formulation Strategies

 Phase Feeding:
o Broilers: Starter (24% CP) → Finisher (20% CP).
o Dairy cows: Dry period (low Ca) → Lactation (high Ca).
 Nutrient Balancing:
o Ideal Protein Concept: Match AA profile to animal needs (e.g., poultry = high
methionine).

2. Additives for Enhanced Production

 Probiotics: Gut health → better nutrient absorption.

 Enzymes (Phytase): Releases bound P → improves bone growth.

VI. Deficiency vs. Excess

Nutrient Deficiency Impact Excess Impact

Energy Stunted growth, ketosis. Obesity, fatty liver.
Poor muscle
Lysine NH₃ toxicity (rare).
development.
Vitamin D Rickets, thin eggshells. Hypercalcemia.

VII. Summary Tables

1. Nutrient Priorities by Production Goal

Goal Key Nutrients

Meat
Lysine, energy, Zn.
Growth
Milk Yield RUP, propionate, Ca.
Egg Mass Methionine, Ca, vit. D.

2. Example Diets

Animal Diet Composition

Broiler (Starter) 24% CP, 3200 kcal ME, 1.2% lysine.
Lactating Cow 18% CP (40% RUP), 25 Mcal NE, 1% Ca.

Bioavailability of Nutrients in Different Food Sources

I. Definition of Bioavailability

Bioavailability refers to the proportion of a nutrient that is absorbed and utilized by the body
after ingestion. It depends on:

 Digestibility (how well the nutrient is broken down).

 Absorption efficiency (intestinal uptake).
 Metabolic utilization (conversion to active forms).

II. Factors Affecting Bioavailability

1. Nutrient Form

 Heme Iron (animal sources: meat, liver) → 20-30% absorbed.

 Non-Heme Iron (plant sources: spinach, lentils) → 2-10% absorbed.

2. Antinutritional Factors

 Phytates (in grains, legumes) → Bind Zn, Fe, Ca.

  Oxalates (spinach, rhubarb) → Reduce Ca absorption.
 Tannins (tea, coffee) → Inhibit iron absorption.

3. Enhancers

 Vitamin C → Boosts non-heme iron absorption by 300%.

 Organic Acids (citric, lactic) → Improve mineral solubility.

4. Processing Effects

 Fermentation (yogurt, tempeh) → Reduces phytates, ↑ mineral bioavailability.

 Cooking → Breaks down oxalates (e.g., spinach).

III. Bioavailability by Nutrient Class

1. Proteins

Bioavailability
Source Notes
(%)
Egg 100 (Reference) Complete AA profile.
Whey Protein 95-100 Fast absorption.
Soybean 75-80 Lower methionine.
Wheat Gluten 50-60 Lysine-deficient.

2. Minerals

Mineral High Bioavailability Source Low Bioavailability Source

Iron Liver (heme iron, 20-30%) Spinach (non-heme, 2-5%).
Calciu
Dairy (30-40%) Kale (20-30%).
m
Zinc Oysters (50-60%) Whole grains (15-30%, phytates).

3. Vitamins

Vitamin High Bioavailability Source Low Bioavailability Source

Vitamin A Liver (retinol, 80-90%) Carrots (β-carotene, 20-50%).
Vitamin
Animal liver (60-70%) Plant sources (0%, unless fortified).
B12
Vitamin D Fatty fish (D3, 80%) Mushrooms (D2, 30-50%).

IV. Species-Specific Bioavailability

1. Ruminants

 Microbial Synthesis: B vitamins (100% bioavailable).

 Phytate Phosphorus: Low (30%) unless phytase is added.

2. Poultry

 Plant Proteins: Soy (85%) > Canola (75%) > Cottonseed (60%).
 Mineral Chelates (Zn, Cu): 2x more bioavailable than sulfates.

3. Swine

 Synthetic Lysine: 100% vs. corn lysine (70-80%).

V. Improving Bioavailability in Diets

1. For Plants

 Soaking/Sprouting: Reduces phytates in grains.

 Pairing Strategies:
o Iron + Vitamin C (e.g., lentils + tomatoes).
o Calcium + Vitamin D (e.g., fortified milk).

2. For Animals

 Enzyme Supplements: Phytase for P, xylanase for carbs.

 Chelated Minerals: Zn-methionine > ZnSO₄.

1. Bioavailability in Grains vs. Legumes

(% Absorbed or Utilized)

Nutrient Grains (e.g., Wheat, Corn) Legumes (e.g., Soy, Lentils) Key Limitation
Protein 60-70% (Lysine-deficient) 75-85% (Methionine-limited) Incomplete AAs in most.
Iron 2-5% (High phytate) 3-8% (Phytate + polyphenols) Vitamin C boosts absorption.
Zinc 15-25% 20-30% Phytate reduction via soaking.
Calcium 20-30% 25-35% Oxalates in spinach > legumes.

Notes:

 Fermentation (e.g., sourdough, tempeh) ↑ mineral bioavailability by degrading phytates.

 Animal-based proteins (e.g., egg, whey) > plant proteins due to complete AA profiles.
2. Inter-Species Differences in Bioavailability

High-Bioavailability
Species Low-Bioavailability Source Adaptation
Source
Microbial protein (80% Raw soy (50% BV, trypsin Rumen microbes detoxify
Ruminants
BV) inhibitors) antinutrients.
Cottonseed meal (60% BV,
Poultry Animal meals (90% BV) Add methionine to balance AAs.
gossypol)
Wheat bran (50% BV, fiber-
Swine Fishmeal (95% BV) Phytase enzyme supplements.
bound P)
Horses Alfalfa (Ca-rich) Oats (P-rich, Ca:P imbalance) Ca supplementation needed.

Key Insights:

 Ruminants: Convert low-quality NPN (urea) to microbial protein (high BV).

 Poultry: Require chelated minerals (e.g., Zn-methionine) due to fast digesta passage.
 Swine: Synthetic lysine > plant lysine (corn) for muscle growth.

3. Strategies to Improve Bioavailability

Approach Example Benefit

Enzymes Phytase in poultry feed Releases 40% more P from phytate.
Processing Extruded soy (heat-treated) Destroys trypsin inhibitors.
Nutrient
Iron + Vitamin C in piglets ↑ Iron absorption by 300%.
Pairing

Summary

1. Legumes > Grains for protein/minerals but require processing.

2. Ruminants excel at utilizing fibrous feeds; poultry/swine need refined diets.
3. Enzymes/chelates bridge bioavailability gaps in monogastrics.