COMP255

Chapter 3
The Relational Database Model

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 Learning Objectives
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Describe the relational database model’s logical structure
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Identify the relational model’s basic components and explain the structure,
contents, and characteristics of a relational table
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Use relational database operators to manipulate relational table contents
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Explain the purpose and components of the data dictionary and system catalog
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Identify appropriate entities and then the relationships among the entities in the
relational database model
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Describe how data redundancy is handled in the relational database model
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Explain the purpose of indexing in a relational database

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 Codd’s Relational Model
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Based on Mathematics
– Predicate logic and set theory
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Three well-defined components
– Logical data structure
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Separate from physical needs
– Set of integrity rules
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Ensures data is and remains consistent
– Set of operations
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Defines how data is manipulated

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 Tables
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Tables = relations
– Different words for the same object

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Tables

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 Definitions
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Key
– One or more attributes that determine other attributes
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Determination
– State in which knowing the value of one attribute makes it possible to determine the value of another
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Determinant
– Any attribute in a specific row whose value directly determines other values in that row
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Dependent
– An attribute whose value is determined by another attribute
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Functional dependence
– Within a relation R, an attribute B is functionally dependent on an attribute A if and only if a given value of
attribute A determines exactly one value of attribute B
– The relationship “B is dependent on A” is equivalent to “A determines B” and is written as A → B

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 Determination Examples
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STU_NUM → STU_LNAME
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STU_NUM → (STU_LNAME, STU_FNAME,
STU_GPA)
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(STU_FNAME, STU_LNAME, STU_INIT,
STU_PHONE) → (STU_DOB, STU_HRS,
STU_GPA)

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Tables

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Types of Keys

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 Entity Integrity
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Each row has a unique value in a primary key
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The primary key is not NULL
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NULL
– The absence of a value
– Different than an empty string (“”)

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 Referential Integrity
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Foreign Key
– Primary key of table A that has been placed into
Table B to create a common attribute
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Referential integrity
– Every reference to an entity instance by another
entity instance is valid

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Referential Integrity

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Integrity Summary

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 Relational Algebra
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What is an algebra?
– A set of objects with operators
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The algebra we are used to
– Real numbers, + - * / ^, etc.
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There are many more
– Complex numbers, + - * / ^, etc.
– Matrices, multiplication, scalar multiplication, + , etc.

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 Relational Algebra
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Closure Property
– Important property of a “good” algebra
– The result of an operation is member of the set
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Relational algebra allows things to be proven
mathematically
– Minimal data redundancy
– Normalization

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 Relational Algebra Operators
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SELECT (or RESTRICT) ●
DIFFERENCE
– Subset of rows – Remove common rows from first
table
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PROJECT
– Subset of columns
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PRODUCT
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UNION
– All combinations of rows
– All rows,columns in two similar ●
DIVIDE
tables – Only those rows related to all
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INTERSECT values in a column
– Common rows in two similar tables ●
JOIN
– Like product but using a common
attribute for combinations
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SELECT

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PROJECT

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UNION and INTERSECT

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DIFFERENCE

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PRODUCT

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DIVIDE

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 Types of Joins
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Join
– Combines information from two or more tables
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Natural join
– Links tables by selecting only the rows with common values in the common attributes
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Equijoin
– Links tables on the basis of an equality condition that compares specified columns of
each table
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Theta join
– Links tables using an inequality comparison operator

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 Natural Join
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Uses the other relational operators
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Steps in a natural join of two tables
– Create PRODUCT of the two tables
– Do a SELECT of the result where the common
attributes are the same
– DO a PROJECT to remove the duplicate columns

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Step 1

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Steps 2 and 3

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 Other Join Definitions
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Inner join
– The previous joins
– Return only matched rows
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Outer join
– Return matched rows and unmatched rows
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Left outer join
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Right outer join
– Return matched and unmatched rows from left/right table

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Left Outer Join

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Right Outer Join

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 Outer Joins
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Outer joins are created using:
– JOIN
– DIFFERENCE
– UNION
– PRODUCT

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Data Dictionary and System Catalog
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Data dictionary
– Description of all tables in the database created by
the user and designer
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System catalog
– System data dictionary that describes all objects
within the database

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Data Dictionary and System Catalog

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 Relationships
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One-to-Many (1:M)
– One occurrence of an entity can be related to many occurrences of
another
– Supported by relational databases
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One-to-One (1:1)
– One instance of an entity can only be related to one occurrence of another
– Typically should not exist, but sometimes…
– Special case of 1:M

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One-to-Many

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One-to-One

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 Many-to-Many
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Not supported in relational databases
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Need to change to 2 1:M relationships
– Add bridge/composite entity

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Composite Entity/Linking Table

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Composite Entity/Linking Table

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 More on Data Redundancy
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Relationships and foreign keys facilitate control
of redundancies
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Is data redundant?
– Does the elimination of an attribute also eliminate
information?
– Yes – don’t remove, No – remove

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 Good Redundancy?
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Yes, sometimes redundancy is OK
– Speed up processing
– Fully normalized databases can be slow
– Data warehouses
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Sometimes redundancy is not really
redundancy

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 Indexes
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Related to secondary keys
– Key used strictly for data retrieval purposes
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Index
– An ordered array of index key values and row ID values
(pointers)
– Indexes are generally used to speed up and facilitate data
retrieval
– Also known as an index key

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Indexes

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Codd’s Relational Database Rules

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