M 3.

1 Electron Theory
1. Matter
2. Elements and Compounds
3. Molecules
4. Atoms
5. Energy Levels
6. Shells and Sub-shells
7. Valence
8. Compounds
9. Ionisation
10. Conductors, Semiconductors
and Insulators

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 1. Matter 3. Molecules
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has weight; A molecule is a chemical combination of two or more atoms,
that is, the weight and dimensions of matter can be measured. (atoms are described in the next paragraph). In a compound the
Examples of matter are air, water, automobiles, clothing, and even molecule is the smallest particle that has all the characteristics of the
our own bodies. Thus, we can say that matter may be found in any compound.
one of three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous.
Consider water, for example. Water is matter, since it occupies
space and has weight. Depending on the temperature, it may exist
as a liquid (water), a solid (ice), or a gas (steam). Regardless of the
2. Elements and Compounds temperature, it will still have the same composition. If we start with a
An ELEMENT is a substance which cannot be reduced to a quantity of water, divide this and pour out one half, and continue this
simpler substance by chemical means. Examples of elements with process a sufficient number of times, we will eventually end up with a
which you are in everyday contact are iron, gold, silver, copper, and quantity of water which cannot be further divided without ceasing to
oxygen. There are now over 100 known elements. All the different be water. This quantity is called a molecule of water. If this molecule
substances we know about are composed of one or more of these of water divided, instead of two parts of water, there will be one part
elements. of oxygen and two parts of hydrogen (H2O).

When two or more elements are chemically combined, the

resulting substance is called a compound. A compound is a 4. Atoms
chemical combination of elements which can be separated by Molecules are made up of smaller particles called atoms. An atom
chemical but not by physical means. Examples of common is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics
compounds are water which consists of hydrogen and oxygen, and of that element. The atoms of one element, however, differ from the
table salt, which consists of sodium and chlorine. A mixture, on the atoms of all other elements. Since there are over 100 known
other hand, is a combination of elements and compounds, not elements, there must be over 100 different atoms, or a different atom
chemically combined, that can be separated by physical means. for each element. Just as thousands of words can be made by
Examples of mixtures are air, which is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, combining the proper letters of the alphabet, so thousands of
carbon dioxide, and small amounts of several rare gases, and sea different materials can be made by chemically combining the proper
water, which consists chiefly of salt and water. atoms.

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 Any particle that is a chemical combination of two or more atoms Figure 1.1 shows one hydrogen and one helium atom. Each has a
is called a molecule. The oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of relatively simple structure. The hydrogen atom has only one proton
oxygen, and the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of in the nucleus with one electron rotating about it. The helium atom is
hydrogen. Sugar, on the other hand, is a compound composed of a little more complex. It has a nucleus made up of two protons and
atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These atoms are combined two neutrons, with two electrons rotating about the nucleus.
into sugar molecules. Since the sugar molecules can be broken Elements are classified numerically according to the complexity of
down by chemical means into smaller and simpler units, we cannot their atoms. The atomic number of an atom is determined by the
have sugar atoms. number of protons in its nucleus.

The atoms of each element are made up of electrons, protons,

and, in most cases, neutrons, which are collectively called subatomic
particles. Furthermore, the electrons, protons, and neutrons of one
element are identical to those of any other element. The reason that
there are different kinds of elements is that the number and the
arrangement of electrons and protons within the atom are different
for the different elements

The electron is considered to be a small negative charge of

electricity. The proton has a positive charge of electricity equal and
opposite to the charge of the electron. Scientists have measured the
mass and size of the electron and proton, and they know how much
charge each possesses. The electron and proton each have the
same quantity of charge, although the mass of the proton is
approximately 1837 times that of the electron. In some atoms there
exists a neutral particle called a neutron. The neutron has a mass
slightly greater than that of a proton, but it has no electrical charge. Figure 1.1 – Structure of Hydrogen and Helium
According to a popular theory, the electrons, protons, and neutrons
of the atoms are thought to be arranged in a manner similar to a In a neutral state, an atom contains an equal number of protons
miniature solar system. The protons and neutrons form a heavy and electrons. Therefore, an atom of hydrogen - which contains one
nucleus with a positive charge, around which the very light electrons proton and one electron - has an atomic number of 1; and helium,
revolve. with two protons and two electrons, has an atomic number of 2. The
complexity of atomic structure increases with the number of protons
and electrons.

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 Heat energy and collisions with other particles can also cause the
5. Energy Levels electron to jump orbits.
Since an electron in an atom has both mass and motion, it
contains two types of energy. By virtue of its motion the electron
contains kinetic energy. Due to its position it also contains potential
energy. The total energy contained by an electron (kinetic plus
potential) is the factor which determines the radius of the electron
orbit. In order for an electron to remain in this orbit, it must neither
GAIN nor LOSE energy.

It is well known that light is a form of energy, but the physical form
in which this energy exists is not known.

One accepted theory proposes the existence of light as tiny

packets of energy called photons. Photons can contain various
quantities of energy. The amount depends upon the colour of the
light involved. Should a photon of sufficient energy collide with an Figure 1.2 – Energy levels in an atom
orbital electron, the electron will absorb the photon's energy, as
shown in figure 1.2. The electron, which now has a greater than Once the electron has been elevated to an energy level higher
normal amount of energy, will jump to a new orbit farther from the than the lowest possible energy level, the atom is said to be in an
nucleus. The first new orbit to which the electron can jump has a excited state. The electron will not remain in this excited condition for
radius four times as large as the radius of the original orbit. Had the more than a fraction of a second before it will radiate the excess
electron received a greater amount of energy, the next possible orbit energy and return to a lower energy orbit. To illustrate this principle,
to which it could jump would have a radius nine times the original. assume that a normal electron has just received a photon of energy
Thus, each orbit may be considered to represent one of a large sufficient to raise it from the first to the third energy level. In a short
number of energy levels that the electron may attain. It must be period of time the electron may jump back to the first level emitting a
emphasized that the electron cannot jump to just any orbit. The new photon identical to the one it received.
electron will remain in its lowest orbit until a sufficient amount of
energy is available, at which time the electron will accept the energy A second alternative would be for the electron to return to the
and jump to one of a series of permissible orbits. An electron cannot lower level in two jumps; from the third to the second, and then from
exist in the space between energy levels. This indicates that the the second to the first. In this case the electron would emit two
electron will not accept a photon of energy unless it contains enough photons, one for each jump. Each of these photons would have less
energy to elevate itself to one of the higher energy levels. energy than the original photon which excited the electron.

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 This principle is used in the fluorescent light where ultraviolet light Starting with the shell closest to the nucleus and progressing
photons, which are not visible to the human eye, bombard a outward, the shells are labelled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q, respectively.
phosphor coating on the inside of a glass tube. The phosphor The shells are considered to be full, or complete, when they contain
electrons, in returning to their normal orbits, emit photons of light that the following quantities of electrons: two in the K shell, eight in the L
are visible. By using the proper chemicals for the phosphor coating, shell, 18 in the M shell, and so on, in accordance with the exclusion
any colour of light may be obtained, including white. principle.

This same principle is also used in lighting up the screen of a Each of these shells is a major shell and can be divided into sub-
television picture tube. shells, of which there are four, labelled s, p, d, and f. Like the major
The basic principles just developed apply equally well to the shells, the sub-shells are also limited as to the number of electrons
atoms of more complex elements. In atoms containing two or more which they can contain. Thus, the "s" sub-shell is complete when it
electrons, the electrons interact with each other and the exact path of contains two electrons, the "p" sub-shell when it contains 6, the “d”
any one electron is very difficult to predict. However, each electron sub-shell when it contains 10, and the "f" sub-shell when it contains
lies in a specific energy band and the orbits will be considered as an 14 electrons.
average of the electron's position.

6. Shells and Sub-shells

The difference between the atoms, insofar as their chemical
activity and stability are concerned, is dependent upon the number
and position of the electrons included within the atom. How are these
electrons positioned within the atom? In general, the electrons reside
in groups of orbits called shells. These shells are elliptically shaped
and are assumed to be located at fixed intervals. Thus, the shells are
arranged in steps that correspond to fixed energy levels. The shells,
and the number of electrons required to fill them, may be predicted
by the employment of Pauli's exclusion principle. Simply stated, this
principle specifies that each shell will contain a maximum of 2n2
electrons, where n corresponds to the shell number starting with the
one closest to the nucleus. By this principle, the second shell, for
example, would contain 2(2)2 or 8 electrons when full.

In addition to being numbered, the shells are also given letter

designations, as pictured in figure 1-3. Figure 1.3 – Shells in an atom

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 7. Valence
In as much as the K shell can contain no more than two electrons, The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the
it must have only one sub-shell, the s sub-shell. valence of an atom. For this reason, the outer shell of an atom is
The M shell is composed of three sub-shells: s, p, and d. If the called the valence shell; and the electrons contained in this shell are
electrons in the s, p, and d sub-shells are added, their total is found called valence electrons. The valence of an atom determines its
to be 18, the exact number required to fill the M shell. ability to gain or lose an electron, which in turn determines the
Notice the electron configuration for copper illustrated in figure chemical and electrical properties of the atom. An atom that is
1.4. lacking only one or two electrons from its outer shell will easily gain
The copper atom contains 29 electrons, which completely fill the electrons to complete its shell, but a large amount of energy is
first three shells and sub-shells, leaving one electron in the "s" sub- required to free any of its electrons. An atom having a relatively small
shell of the N shell. number of electrons in its outer shell in comparison to the number of
electrons required to fill the shell will easily lose these valence
electrons. The valence shell always refers to the outermost shell.

8. Compounds
Pure substances made up more than 1 element which have been
joined together by a chemical reaction therefore the atoms are
difficult to separate. The properties of a compound are different from
the atoms that make it up. Splitting of a compound is called
chemical analysis.

Note that a compound:

 consists of atoms of two or more different elements

bound together,
 can be broken down into a simpler type of matter
(elements) by chemical means (but not by physical
means),
 has properties that are different from its component
elements, and
 always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.
Figure 1.4 - The copper atom

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 9. Ionisation The fewer the valence electrons, the better conductor of electricity
When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process it will be. Copper, for example, has just one valence electron.
of electron exchange, it is said to be ionized. For ionisation to take
place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a change in The electrical conductivity of matter is dependent upon the atomic
the internal energy of the atom. An atom having more than its normal structure of the material from which the conductor is made. In any
amount of electrons acquires a negative charge, and is called a solid material, such as copper, the atoms which make up the
negative ion. The atom that gives up some of its normal electrons is molecular structure are bound firmly together. At room temperature,
left with less negative charges than positive charges and is called a copper will contain a considerable amount of heat energy. Since heat
positive ion. Thus, ionisation is the process by which an atom loses energy is one method of removing electrons from their orbits, copper
or gains electrons. will contain many free electrons that can move from atom to atom.
When not under the influence of an external force, these electrons
10. Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators move in a haphazard manner within the conductor. This movement is
equal in all directions so that electrons are not lost or gained by any
In this study of electricity and electronics, the association of matter part of the conductor. When controlled by an external force, the
and electricity is important. Since every electronic device is electrons move generally in the same direction. The effect of this
constructed of parts made from ordinary matter, the effects of movement is felt almost instantly from one end of the conductor to
electricity on matter must be well understood. As a means of the other. This electron movement is called an electric current.
accomplishing this, all elements of which matter is made may be
placed into one of three categories: conductors, semiconductors, Some metals are better conductors of electricity than others.
and insulators, depending on their ability to conduct an electric Silver, copper, gold, and aluminium are materials with many free
current. conductors are elements which conduct electricity very electrons and make good conductors. Silver is the best conductor,
readily, insulators have an extremely high resistance to the flow of followed by copper, gold, and aluminium. Copper is used more often
electricity. All matter between these two extremes may be called than silver because of cost. Aluminium is used where weight is a
semiconductors. major consideration, such as in high-tension power lines, with long
spans between supports. Gold is used where oxidation or corrosion
The electron theory states that all matter is composed of atoms is a consideration and a good conductivity is required. The ability of a
and the atoms are composed of smaller particles called protons, conductor to handle current also depends upon its physical
electrons, and neutrons. The electrons orbit the nucleus which dimensions. Conductors are usually found in the form of wire, but
contains the protons and neutrons. It is the valence electrons (the may be in the form of bars, tubes, or sheets.
electrons in the outer shell) that we are most concerned with in
electricity. These are the electrons which are easiest to break loose Non-conductors have few free electrons. These materials are
from their parent atom. Normally, conductors have three or less called insulators. Some examples of these materials are rubber,
valence electrons; insulators have five or more valence electrons; plastic, enamel, glass, dry wood, and mica. Just as there is no
and semiconductors usually have four valence electrons. perfect conductor, neither is there a perfect insulator.

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 Some materials are neither good conductors nor good insulators, Atom Electrons per ShellAtom Electrons per Shell
Element Element
since their electrical characteristics fall between those of conductors No. K L M N O P Q No. K L M N 0 P Q
and insulators. 53 Iodine 2 8 18 8 7 79 Gold 2 8 8 32 18 1
These in-between materials are classified as semiconductors. 54 Xenon 2 8 18 18 8 80 Mercury 2 8 8 32 18 2
55 Caesium 2 8 18 8 8 1 81 Thallium 2 8 8 32 18 3
Germanium and silicon are two common semiconductors used in
56 Barium 2 8 18 8 8 2 82 Lead 2 8 8 32 18 4
solid-state devices.
57 Lanthanum 2 8 18 8 9 2 83 Bismuth 2 8 8 32 18 5

Electrons per Shell Electrons per Shell 58 Cerium 2 8 18 19 9 2 84 Polonium 2 8 8 32 18 6

Atom Atom
Element Element
No. K L M N O P Q No. K L M N 0 P Q 59 Praseodymium 2 8 18 20 9 2 85 Asatine 2 8 8 32 18 7
1 Hydrogen I 27 Cobalt 2 8 15 2 60 Neodymium 2 8 18 21 9 2 86 Radon 2 8 8 32 18 8
2 Helium 2 28 Nickel 2 8 16 2
61 Promethium 2 8 18 22 9 2 87 Francium 2 8 8 32 18 8 1
3 Lithium 2 1 29 Copper 2 8 18 1
4 Beryllium 2 2 30 Zinc 2 8 18 2 62 Samarium 2 8 18 23 9 2 88 Radium 2 8 8 32 18 8 2
5 Boron 2 3 31 Gallium 2 8 18 3 63 Europium 2 8 18 24 9 2 89 Actinium 2 8 18 32 18 9 2
6 Carbon 2 4 32 Germanium 2 8 18 4
7 Nitrogen 2 5 33 Arsenic 2 8 18 5 64 Gadolinium 2 8 18 25 9 2 90 Thorium 2 8 18 32 19 9 2
8 Oxygen 2 6 34 Selenium 2 8 18 6 65 Terbium 2 8 18 26 9 2 91 Protactinium 2 8 18 32 20 9 2
9 Fluorine 2 7 35 Bromine 2 8 18 7
66 Dysprosium 2 8 18 27 9 2 92 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2
10 Neon 2 8 36 Krypton 2 8 18 8
11 Sodium 2 8 1 37 Rubidium 2 8 18 8 1 67 Holmium 2 8 18 28 9 2 93 Neptunium 2 8 18 32 22 9 2
12 Magnesium 2 8 2 38 Strontium 2 8 18 8 2
68 Erbium 2 8 18 29 9 2 94 Plutonium 2 8 18 32 23 9 2
13 Aluminium 2 8 3 39 Yttrium 2 8 18 9 2
14 Silicon 2 8 4 40 Zirconium 2 8 18 10 2 69 Thulium 2 8 18 30 9 2 95 Americium 2 8 18 32 24 9 2
15 Phosphorus 2 8 5 41 Niobium 2 8 18 12 70 Ytterbium 2 8 18 31 9 2 96 Curium 2 8 8 32 25 9 2
16 Sulphur 2 8 6 42 Molybdenum 2 8 18 13
17 Chlorine 2 8 7 43 Technetium 2 8 18 14 71 Lutetium 2 8 18 32 9 2 97 Berkelium 2 8 8 32 26 9 2
18 Argon 2 8 8 44 Ruthenium 2 8 18 15 72 Halnium 2 8 18 32 10 2 98 Californium 2 8 8 32 27 9 2
19 Potassium 2 8 8 1 45 Rhodium 2 8 18 16
73 Tantalum 2 8 18 32 11 2 99 Einsteinium 2 8 8 32 28 9 2
20 Calcium 2 8 8 2 46 Palladium 2 8 18 18
21 Scandium 2 8 9 2 47 Silver 2 8 18 18 1 74 Tungsten 2 8 18 32 12 2 100 Fermium 2 8 8 32 29 9 2
22 Titanium 2 8 10 2 48 Cadmium 2 8 18 18 2
75 Rhenium 2 8 18 32 13 2 101 Mendelevium 2 8 18 32 30 9 2
23 Vanadium 2 8 11 2 49 Indium 2 8 18 18 3
24 Chromium 2 8 13 1 50 Tin 2 8 18 18 4 76 Osmium 2 8 18 32 14 2 102 Nobelium 2 8 18 32 31 9 2
25 Manganese 2 8 13 2 51 Antimony 2 8 18 18 5 77 Iridium 2 8 8 32 15 2 103 Lawrencium 2 8 18 32 32 9 2
26 Iron 2 8 14 2 52 Tellurium 2 8 18 18 6
78 Platinum 2 8 8 32 16 2

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