CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF -​ Typically have low densities and may be

MATERIALS extremely flexible.

-​ PVC, PTFE, Polythene, Terylene,
Materials Science- field which deals with
Rubber etc
discovery and design of new materials
Materials- substance intended to be used for
4.​ COMPOSITES- fiberglass is a familiar
certain applications
example, in which glass fibers are
Two classes:
embedded within a polymeric material
1.​ Crystalline
-​ Designed to display a
2.​ non-crystalline
combination of the best
Bronze age- started about 3000BC
characteristics of each of the
component materials
Why study Matsci?
5.​ SEMICONDUCTORS- immediate
●​ To select a material based on
between the electrical conductors and
consideration of cost and performance
insulator
●​ To understand limits of material and the
-​ Include Si, Ge, CdSe, GaAs etc
change of their properties with use
6.​ BIOMATERIALS- employed in
●​ To be able to create a new material that
components implanted into human body
will have some desirable properties
for replacement of diseased or damaged
Types of Engineering Materials
body parts.
1.​ Metals
-​ Metals, ceramics, polymers,
2.​ Ceramics
composites, and
3.​ Polymers
semiconductors may be used as
(three other groups of important
biomaterials
engineering materials: composites,
7.​ ADVANCED MATERIALS- materials
semi-conductors, biomaterials)
that are utilized in high-technology (or
high-tech) applications are sometimes
1. METALS- extremely good conductor of
termed advanced materials.
electricity and heat and are not transparent to
-​ Either traditional material whose
visible light, a polished metal surface has a
properties have been enhanced
lustrous appearance
or they are newly developed,
-​ Strong, yet deformable
high-performance materials.
●​ FERROUS METALS (carbon steel, alloy
8.​ MODERN MATERIAL’S NEEDS
steel, stainless steel, tool and die steel,
●​ Engine efficiency increases at
etc.)
high temperatures: requires high
●​ NON-FERROUS STEEL (Al, Mg, Cu, Ni,
temperature withstanding
Ti, refractory metals, Be, Zr, super
materials
alloys)
●​ Use of nuclear energy requires
2. CERAMICS- compounds between metallic
solving prob with residues
and nonmetallic elements
●​ Hypersonic flight requires
-​ Mostly oxides, nitrides and carbides
materials that are light, strong
-​ Includes ceramics that are composed of
and resist high temperatures
clay minerals, cement, and glass.
Typically insulative to the passage of
1.2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
heat electricity and heat
COMPOSITION
3. POLYMERS- a large molecule built up by the
repetition of small, simple chemical units.
1.​ Ferrous Alloys- iron is the principal
-​ Include familiar plastic and rubber
constituent, include steels and cast irons
materials.

1
 -​ Iron-containing compounds exist Types of Cast Iron:
in abundant quantities 1.​ Gray Iron- least expensive and the
-​ Metallic iron and steel alloys most common variety. 2.5 to 4% carbon
may be produced using contents. Poor corrosion
relatively economical extraction, 2.​ White cast iron- has a light
refining, alloying, and fabrication appearance. Can be formed during
tech solidification. Eve more brittle than gray
-​ Extremely versatile cast iron.
-​ Susceptible to corrosion 3.​ Ductile cast iron- the most versatile of
(disadv) cast irons. Produced by a process called
2.​ Steels- iron-carbon alloys that may “chilling” which prevents graphite carbon
contain appreciable concentrations of from precipitating out. Strong and tough,
other alloying elements easy to machine, and less expensive
-​ Sensitive to the content of than other cast irons.
carbon 4.​ Malleable cast iron- made from
●​ PLAIN CARBON STEELS- contain only reheating, then cooling, white cast iron.
residual concentrations of impurities Two basic types: ferritic and pearlitic
other than carbon and a little
manganese 1.3 CHEMICAL BONDING
-​ Low carbon- less than 0.3% -​ Any of the interactions that account for
carbon content. Relatively soft the association of atoms into molecules,
and weak but have outstanding ions, crystals, and other stable species
ductility and toughness that makes up the familiar substances of
●​ MEDIUM CARBON STEELS- carbon the everyday world.
concentration about 0.3 to 0.7%. -​ Molecules are the smallest units of
Popularly known as machinery steels. compound that can exist.
Easily hardened by heat treatment
●​ HIGH CARBON STEELS- carbon CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES AND
contents 0.7 to 1.4 wt%. They are called
CHARACTERISTICS OF
hard steels or tool steels
2. Alloy Steels- steels with other alloying ENGINEERING MATERIALS
elements in addition to carbon required to
introduce new properties that are not available in Property- a qualitative or quantitative measure
plain carbon steels. of response of materials to externally imposed
●​ HIGH-ALLOY STEELS- possess conditions like forces and temperature,
microstructures different from plain
carbon steels Classification of Material Property
●​ LOW-ALLOY STEELS- contains up to 3 1.​ MECHANICAL PROPERTIES-
or 4 % of one or more alloying elements determines its behaviour under applied
for the purpose of increasing strength forces called mechanical properties
and toughness -​ Related to elastic and plastic
●​ STAINLESS STEELS- highly resistant to behaviour
corrosion in a variety of environments, -​ Expressed as the function of
especially the ambient atmosphere stress-strain
3. Cast Iron- are selected grades of pig iron, Classification of Mech Properties:
which are remelted and cast in sand moulds. ●​ ELASTICITY- which deformation
Carbon contents is generally 2 to 4% caused by applied loads disappears
-​ Cheap, easily melted and amenable to upon removal of load
casting, high damping capacity
2
 -​ Power of coming back to its and proper processing of a
original position after material
deformation when the load is Two common measure of ductility:
removed percentage elongation, percentage
-​ Types of parameters: reduction
modulus(measures amount of ●​ HARDNESS- gives material the ability to
force per unit area); elastic resist being permanently deformed
limit(limit can be a stress when a load is applied
beyond which the material no Various hardening process:
longer behaves elastic and -​ Hall-petch strengthening
deformation of the material will -​ Work hardening
take place) -​ Solid solution strengthening
●​ PLASTICITY- its ability to undergo some -​ Precipitation hardening
degree of permanent deformation -​ Martensitic transformation
without rupture or failure Measurement methods:
-​ It increases with increase in - Rockwell hardness test
temperature - Brinell hardness test
-​ Plastic means permanent - vickers hardness test
●​ TOUGHNESS- ability of the material to - knoop hardness
absorb energy during plastic - shore
deformation up to fracture. - mohs test
-​ Good combination of strength - barcol hardness test
and ductility Hardness depends on:
-​ Greatly affected by temperature -​ Ductility
Variables that have a profound influence -​ Elastic stiffness
on the toughness of a material: strain rate -​ Plasticity
(toughness decrease as the rate of loading -​ Strain
increases), temperature (as temp is lowered, -​ Toughness
the ductility and toughness also decrease), -​ viscosity
notch effect (distribution of stress) ●​ FATIGUE- progressive and localized
-Impact Toughness (determined with a charpy structural damage that occurs when a
test)- at low temperatures the material is more material is subjected to cyclic loadings.
brittle and impact toughness is low; at high Endurance limit- hughes stress that a
temperatures the material is more ductile and material can withstand for an infinite
impact toughness is higher number of cycles without breaking
-Notch Toughness(ability that a material (the geater the applied stress range, the
possesses to absorb energy in the presence of a shorter the life)
flaw) measured with charpy V-notch. Amount of ●​ CREEP- tendency of a solid material to
plastic deformation is restricted by the deform permanently under the influence
surrounding material, which remains elastic. of mechanical stresses. Creep is more
●​ RESILIENCE severe in materials that are subjected to
●​ TENSILE STRENGTH heat for long periods
●​ YIELD STRENGTH Influencing factors:
●​ IMPACT STRENGTH -​ Diffusion
●​ DUCTILITY- ability of a material to -​ Dislocation
undergo plastic deformation without -​ Temperature
fracture -​ stress
-​ Quality control measure to ●​ WEAR RESISTANCE- wear is related to
assess the level of impurities interactions between surfaces and
3
 specifically the removal and deformation 2.​ COMPRESSION TESTING- the
of material on a surface as a result of opposite of tensile testing. Compressive
mechanical action of the opposite load tends to squeeze or compact the
surface specimen.
Classification of wear: Components of Compression Testing Machine
-​ Adhesive wear ●​ Main machine part: cross beam, rod,
-​ Abrasive wear cylinder, frame, and the bottom plate
-​ Surface fatigue ●​ Hydraulic part: oil tank, hydraulic filter,
-​ Fretting wear motor, oil back valve set, oil delivery
-​ Erosive wear valve set, etc
-​ Corrosive and oxidation wear ●​ Controller part: controller, inner printer,
sensor, etc
Stress-Strain- any materials subjected to a load ●​ Computer series(optional): software,
may either deform, yield of break, depending computer, and printer
upon: magnitude of load, nature of the material,
cross-sectional dimension 3.​ COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL
EXPANSION- used to determine teh
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL TESTING rate at which a material expands as a
function of temperature.
-​ Can be used for design
Material Testing- used to ascertain both the
purposes and to determine if
physical and mechanical properties of raw
failure by thermal stress may
materials and components.
occur.
-​ Can be used to examine almost
Test Procedure:
anything from human hair to steel,
In a thermomechanical analysis, specimen is
ceramics or composite materials
placed in the holder at room temperature. The
Reasons of Conducting Material Testing
height is measure by the probe. The furnace is
●​ Ensure quality
rase and the temperature is brought to 20 deg
●​ Test properties
below the lowest temperature of interest.
●​ Prevent failure in use
●​ Make informed choices in using
Specimen size: should be between 2 and 10mm.
materials
in length and shall not exceed 10mm. in lateral
Types of Material Testing
dimension.
1.​ TENSILE TESTING- a sample is
subjected to a controlled tension until
4.​ BEAM DEFLECTION- bend testing,
failure.
sometimes called flexure testing or
-​ Used to determine the
transverse beam testing, measure the
mechanical behavior of
behavior of materials subjected to
materials under static, axial
simple beam loading.
tensile, or stretch loading
-​ Most common test for brittle
Universal Testing Machine- the most common
materials
testing machine used in tensile testing. Has
-​ Commonly performed on
two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length
relatively flexible materials such
of the specimen and the other is driven to
as polymers, wood, and
apply tension to the test specimen.
composites.
Two types: hydraulic powered and
Common ASTM and ISO flexure test standards:
electromagnetically powered machines
●​ ASTM D790- standard test methods for
flexural properties of unreinforced and

4
 reinforced plastics and electrical and localised structural damage that occurs
insulating materials when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
●​ ISO 178- plastics-determination of
flexural properties 1.​ IMPACT TESTING- a high strain rate
●​ ASTM A370- tensile testing and bend test which determines the amount of
testing steel reinforced bar energy absorbed by a material during
Types of Flexural Test fracture
●​ Three Point Bend Test- area of uniform Two types of Impact Testing:
stress is quite small and concentrated ●​ Charpy Impact Test- apparatus
under the center loading point consists of pendulum of known mass
●​ Four Point Bend Test- area of uniform and length that is dropped from a known
stress between the inner span loading height to impact a notched specimen of
point material.
5.​ SHEAR/TORSION TEST- involves an -​ Conducted on machines that
applied force or load that acts in a are capable of measuring less
direction parallel to the plane in which than 1ft.lb to 300 ft.lb at temp
the load in applied ranging from -320degF to over
Shear Test- designed to apply stress to 2000degF.
a test sample so that it experiences as ●​ IZOD Impact Testing - uses a different
sliding failure along a plane that is arrangement of the specimen under
parallel to the forces applied. test. It is held in a cantilever beam
Torsion Test- evaluates the properties configuration as opposed to a
of materials or devices while under three-point bending configuration.
stress from angular displacement. Can 2.​ DESTRUCTIVE TESTING- the method
split into two distinct categories: testing of identifying the point of an applications
raw materials like metal wires or plastic failure.
tubing, or functional testing of finished Benefits of Destructive Testing (DT)
products subjected to torsion, such as ●​ Verifies properties of a a material
screws, pharmaceutical bottles, and ●​ Determines quality of welds
sheathed cables. ●​ Helps you to reduce failures, accidents
Types of Torsion Test: and costs
●​ Torsion Only ●​ Ensures compliance with regulations
●​ Axial-Torsion 3.​ FATIGUE TESTING- applying cyclic
●​ Failure Testing loading to your test specimen to
●​ Proof Testing understand how it will perform under
●​ Operational Testing similar conditions in actual use.
-​ Gives much better data to
CHAPTER 4: FRACTURE predict the in-dervice life of
materials.
TOUGHNESS AND FATIGUE AND
ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Fracture Toughness- a property which

describes the ability of a material containing a
crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most
important properties of any material for many
design applications.
Fatigue- the weakening of a material caused by
repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive