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Lecture 2 Food Engineering Principles Slide No. 1 Slide No. 2

Outline
Basic Concepts of 1. System-Process –Phase - Equilibrium
THERMODYNAMICS 2. Energy, forms of energy, energy
transformation
System-Process
3. Internal energy, heat, work
Work-Heat 4. Kinetics and potential energy
Enthalpy- Steam Table 5. First law of thermodynamics
6. Enthalpy; specific heat; calorimeter
Dr. Dang Quoc Tuan 7. Steam table
Department of Food Technology
International University – VNU HCMC 8. Latent and sensible heat

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SYSTEM- PROCESS- Slide No. 3

CONCEPT OF SYSTEM
Slide No. 4

PHASES System:
Outline: • The part of the universe that
- System, surroundings, boundary you want to analyze
- Boundary permeability • A system may consist of a
- System classification complex set of equipment, a
- System properties: intensive, extensive part of that equipment, a
- State of a system simple object or a quantity of
- Processes, types of processes material like water.
- Mass, conservation of mass • The selection depends on the
- Input, Output, Consumption, Accumulation problem you wish to solve.
- Equilibrium
- Steady state, batch and continuous processes - Surroundings
- Process path/ Reversible/ Irreversible processes
- Phase/ Phase rules/ Phase diagram - Boundary

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Examples of system
Slide No. 5 Slide No. 6

System Boundary:
The system is a general way of representing almost any device or
material in the same way that an algebraic variable can represent - May be real and tangible
any number.
• A can of food (physical existence of
• A pasteurizer the boundary)
• Water in a section of pipe
• A cube of atmosphere - May be imaginary
• The gas in a model piston
Boundary Boundary permeability:
- To matter
- To heat
- To work
- To energy
Tube-in-tube heat exchanger (heat and/or work)
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Slide No. 7 Slide No. 8

System classification System Clarification
No heat No work Heat Work Heat Closed System Isolated system

Isolated system Closed system Open system

No matter No matter Matter

No heat Work
• Isolated system: impermeable to matter and
energy
• Closed system: permeable to energy but not to Adiabatic system
matter -Well Insulated
• Open system: permeable to matter and energy (no energy transfer)
• Adiabatic system: permeable to work but not
No matter - No mass transfer
to heat
a piston
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Slide No. 10

System Clarification
Slide No. 9
SYSTEM PROPERTIES
* Intensive properties: independent on the mass of the
Open System system
permeable to both Adiabatic System - Temperature
matter and energy
No matter - pressure
- viscosity
- density
- chemical potential
- concentration

* Extensive: dependent on the mass of the system

- Mass
- Weight
- Volume
- Energy

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Slide No. 11 Slide No. 12

State of the System State of the System

The state of a system is defined when we know the value The state of a system is defined when we know the value of
of all its intensive variables. all its intensive variables.
The system is at EQUILIBRIUM • Temperature: average kinetic energy of the molecules in a
system
The following intensive variables are particularly useful • Pressure: force exerted per unit area on a surface
in defining the state of a system: • Specific volume: volume occupied by a unit of mass
• Concentration: unit mass or volume of the system
- Temperature • e.g.:
- Pressure • Composition: H2O
- Specific volume • Mass=10kg
- Concentration • T=45oC
• Pressure= 1atm
• Specific volume = 1 l/kg

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Slide No. 13 Slide No. 14

PROCESS Types of Processes

A process is an event that changes the state of a system
by changing the value of one or more of its properties. Isothermal Processes. A process that runs at constant
temperature is called isothermal.
Process: system from State 1 into State 2

a change in: Isobaric Processes. A process that runs at constant

-Temperature pressure is called isobaric (or isopiestic).
- pressure
- mass
- volume Isochoric (iso-volumic) Process. A process in which the
- chemical composition volume does not change is called isometric or iso-
- or any other property. volumic.

A process may involve internal changes in the system as

well as exchanges of matter and energy between the
system and its surroundings.

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Slide No. 15
Batch process
Slide No. 16

Types of Processes
If a process begins at a fixed initial state and
Adiabatic Process. A process in which there is no progresses to a final state it is called a batch process.
exchange of heat between the system and its
surroundings is called adiabatic.

Isoentropic. Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a

system. A process in which entropy does not change is
called isoentropic. To be isoentropic, a process must
not only be adiabatic but must also have no energy lost
to friction.
Cyclic. A process that returns to its original state
is called cyclic.

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Continuous process
Slide No. 17 Slide No. 18

Steady-state process Process path

• Materials continuously fed to a process through an input stream;
Product continuously removed through an output stream.
• If such a process is operated so that at all points in the process,
the temperature, pressure and other system variables remain
constant, it is also a steady-state process.

As long as matter
and/or energy are
entering and leaving a
system, equilibrium
will not be reached. In
spite of this, the
system variables do
not change with time. Volume pressure paths

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Slide No. 19 Slide No. 20

Reversible process
Irreversible process
25
Volume

37
B

50 A

37
Temp

25

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Slide No. 21 Slide No. 22

Components of a system
PHASE A chemical constituent is a distinct chemical
form such as H2O, NaCl, Sucrose, H+ ions, OH-
ions, etc.
A phase is a
The number of components in a system is the
homogeneous, smallest number of constituents whose
physically distinct concentration can be independently varied.
portion of the system
Example:
that can be
mechanically separated Pure water is a one component system. Sugar and water
is a two component (binary) system.
from the rest of the
system. A Na2S04-water system is a two component system, even
though the various possible phases of the system can
contain Na2SO4, Na2SO4.7H20, Na2SO4.10H20.

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Slide No. 23 Slide No. 24

Degree of Freedom The phase rule

The smallest number of independent intensive Gibb's phase rule states that the number of
variables (pressure, temperature, intensive properties needed to unambiguously
concentrations, etc.) that must be specified in define its state is given by the equation:
order to define the state of the system.
d.f. = 2+C-P (6)

Where:
Example: Two (and only two) intensive properties are df = Number of degrees of freedom (number of intensive
needed to define the state of the ideal gas. properties),
C = The number of independent components,
P = The number of phases that exist in this state.

Note:
- Only intensive properties are considered
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Slide No. 25 Slide No. 26

The phase rule True and metastable

equilibrium
Example: System containing pure water
d.f. = ?

Example: System containing water and ice, existing in

equilibrium
d.f. = ?

Example: Degree of freedom at the triple point

d.f. = ?
Stable equilibrium Metastable equilibrium

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Slide No. 27 Slide No. 28

Phase Diagram

Common coordinates:
- P vs. T
- P vs V
- Enthalpy vs. Pressure

Ice-water Solid-vapor Liquid – vapour

Equilibrium Equilibrium equilibrium The Vapor-Pressure Line

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Slide No. 29 Slide No. 30

The Freezing Point Line The Sublimation Line

The Freezing Point Line (Fusion Line) The Sublimation Line

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Slide No. 31 Slide No. 32

Process on a Phase Diagram Phase diagram of H2O

The Fusion
Line is
1 2 3 inclined to the
left

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Slide No. 33 Slide No. 34

Phase diagram of CO2 THERMODYNAMICS

 The word "thermodynamics" comes from Greek
roots meaning heat (thermo) and energy, or power
(dynamics). So, Thermodynamics is really just the
study of heat and energy, and how it relates to the
matter in our universe.
 Thermodynamics is used in many fields of study,
such as physics and engineering, to understand
physical processes.
 Despite all these applications, the basic tenets of
thermodynamics can be stated in just a few laws.
 There are three laws of thermodynamics. Only the
The Sublimation Line is inclined to the right first law is discussed here.

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Slide No. 35 Slide No. 36

What is energy? Kinetic and Potential Energy

• When work is done to an object, it
Greek: Energy: en=in; ergon=work
acquires energy. The energy it acquires
is known as mechanical energy.
• It’s the capacity to do work
– Work = Force x Distance • Kinetic - energy of motion
– Light (movement of photons)
– An object or organism doing work (by force over a
– Electricity (movement of electrons)
distance) uses energy.
– Heat (movement of molecules)
– All organisms require energy to stay alive – Movement of large objects
– Energy makes changes possible
• Potential - stored energy or energy of position
• Car moving
– Electricity stored in a battery
• Bird flying
– Chemical energy (stored in bonds)
• Electricity flowing through wires
– Position energy (water behind dam)
• Light
– Nuclear energy
• Heat
– Molecular energy
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Potential Energy
Slide No. 37 Slide No. 38

Kinetic Energy
Position Engergy: Energy associated with the elevation
Energy associated with the motion as a whole (not of the system relative to some reference level
molecular motion)
PE = mgh
KE = ½mv2
Example 2: Let a system consist of a 100 cm length of water in a pipe 3 cm in
Example 1: Consider a horizontal pipe of 1/2" inside diameter, with diameter at point A, 4 m above the floor . The pipe drops to point B, 2 m above
water flowing through it at an average velocity of 10 in/sec. Lets the floor. What is the potential energy of the system relative to the floor? What
define our system as a portion of the water 5 inches long that is is the change in potential energy of the system when it moves to point B in the
pipe?
moving with this stream. What is its kinetic energy?
Solution 2:
Solution 1: The volume of this system is • The volume of the system is V = πr2x = π(1.5x10-2 m)2(1m) = 7.07x10-4 m3
• V = π.r2x = 3.14 *(0.25 in)2 *5in= 0.98 in3 = 0.98(1/12)3.(0.02832) m3 =1.61.10-5m3 • The mass of the system is m = Vρ = (7.07 x 10-4 m3)(1000 kg/m3) = 0.707 kg
• where r = the radius of the pipe and x = the length of the water making up our • The potential energy relative to the floor is PE = mgh = (0.707 kg)(9.807 m/sec2)(4 m) =
27.7 Nm (joules)
system. The mass of the system is: m=ρ.V = 0.0161 kg
• In other words, if the system dropped to the floor, 27.7 joules of energy will be converted
• The kinetic energy of the system is to kinetic energy during the fall and to heat when it hits the floor. The change in potential
energy in moving from the original position to point B is:
∆PE = mg∆h = mg(hB - hA) = (0.707 kg)(9.807 m/ sec2)( -2 m) = -13.9 Nm (joules)

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Slide No. 39 Slide No. 40

Example 3: A mass of 1 kg whose velocity increases from 15
m/s to 30 m/s while its elevation decreases by 10 m at a
Electromagnetic Energy
location where g 9.7 m/s2. What is the change in kinetic and
potential energy? • Moving electric charges - Also
called radiant energy.
• Radio/television waves, infrared
radiation, visible light, X rays,
and electromagnetic radiation
from the sun (as solar energy)
are all covered under
electromagnetic energy.
Problem: • Electromagnetic spectrum
• A crane lifts a 100 kg cheese 6 meters off the floor. Verify covers wide range.
that the crane did 5884 joules of work on the cheese.
Show all units and verify that they cancel correctly.
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Slide No. 41 Slide No. 42

Nuclear Energy
Molecular Energy
• Nuclear energy is the most concentrated form of energy.
• The nucleus of an atom is the source of nuclear energy.
• Energy is released when nucleus is split (fission)- nuclear • Associated with the attractions and
reactions take place. repulsions between molecules
• This energy changes when a phase
change takes place

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Slide No. 43 Slide No. 44

Chemical Energy Thermal Energy

• Energy that exists in the • Random motion of molecules
bonds that hold atoms (including translation, rotation and
together, which can be vibration)
released by chemical • Electron shifts within the
reactions – e.g. through molecules
combustion. Bond Energy • Produces heat energy or thermal
• Common sources of stored (kJ/mol) energy.
chemical energy includes N-N 160 • Temperature associated with heat
wood, coal, natural gas, oil, O-O 140
(thermal energy).
etc. – As heat energy increases,
C-C 345 temperature increases.
C-H 411 – As heat energy decreases,
C=C 602 temperature decreases.
C-O 358
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Slide No. 45 Slide No. 46

Internal energy, U Internal energy

Include:
Definition: The energy within the system
(translational, vibration, rotational energy of the • Nuclear energy: binding of particles within atomic nuclei.
molecules, the energy involved in chemical • Chemical energy: binding of atoms to make molecules
• Thermal energy: random motion (translation, rotation,
bonding, the energy involved in nonbonding vibration) of molecules; electron shift within the molecule
interactions between molecules or parts of the • Molecular energy: attraction and repulsion between
same molecule) molecules

– the total energy associated with the microscopic

components of the system
– Also includes the intermolecular potential energy
– Does not include macroscopic kinetic energy or
external potential energy

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Slide No. 47 Slide No. 48

Characteristics of Internal Path Independence

Energy
 The internal energy is a state function - it
depends only on the values of macroparameters
(the state of a system)
 It is not affected by the path followed in
reaching the state
 It is an extensive property

U = U (V, T)
For an ideal gas (no interactions) :
U = U (T) - “pure” kinetic
2a
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Slide No. 49 Slide No. 50

What is Heat? More About Heat

Amount of energy transferred by heat
• Like temperature, heat is something designated by symbol q
which is seemingly familiar, but difficult A system does not have heat, just like it does
to define precisely. not have work (heat and work speak to
• Heat has meaning only when exchanged transfer of energy)
Heat, like work, has meaning only when
• It is a path quantity exchanged
• Heat is amount of energy that the Heat is not an indestructible fluid as had been
system exchanges with its previously supposed
surroundings, when exist a temperature Heat is a microscopic form of energy transfer
difference, or a phase change involving large numbers of particles

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Slide No. 51 Slide No. 52

More About Heat Work and Heat

We are often interested in U , not U. U is
Energy exchange occurs due to individual due to:
interactions of the particles.
 q - energy flow between a system and its
 No macroscopic displacements or forces involved
surroundings due to T across a boundary
Heat flow is from a system at higher and a finite thermal conductivity of the
temperature to one at lower temperature. boundary.
 Flow of heat tends to equalize average microscopic
kinetic energy of molecules
When 2 systems are in thermal equilibrium, – heating (q > 0) /cooling (q < 0)
they are at the same temperature and there is
no net heat flow. w - any other kind of energy transfer across
boundary - work
Energy transferred by heat does not always
mean there is a temperature change (see
phase changes). Work and Heat are both defined to describe energy transfer
across a system boundary.
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Work
Slide No. 53 Slide No. 54

Units of Heat and Work

Transfer of energy between a system and its surroundings
when one pushes on the other.  Calorie: the historical unit of heat
Physicists defines work as a force times a distance, i.e.  A calorie is the amount of energy
W = F.∆x necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g
F = force, ∆x = the distance moved. of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C
(If you push on an immovable block of granite, you may get tired but if  Joule: SI unit
the block doesn't move, you are doing no work.)
 The British thermal unit (BTU): the amount of
Other Types of Work: energy necessary to raise the temperature of
• Shaft work: done by moving part within a system (ex. 1 lbm of water from 63°F to 64°F
water is pumped by rotating a shaft).
 1 Erg = the work done by a force of one dyne
• PV –work (flow work)
• Surface Expansion
acting over a distance of one centimeter.
– Surface tension and change in interfacial area
• Electrical 1 Dyne=1g/(cm.s2)
– Movement of electric charge in a potential field
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Slide No. 55 Slide No. 56

Some useful conversion units are: Sign Convention

Some units of work:
Conventions on the sign of q and w
SI System: Joules = N.m (same as heat) work done on a system is positive (+ w)
cgs System: Ergs = Dyne.cm work done by a system is negative (- w)
Am. Eng System: ft.lbs 1 Dyne=1g/(cm.s2)
British Thermal Unit = BTU
heat transferred to a system is positive (+q)
• 1 Joule = 10+7 ergs = 0.7376 ft.lbf heat transferred out a system is negative (-q)

• 1 cal = 4.186 J Note: Convention on the sign for work w

work done on a system is negative (- w)
• 1 BTU = 1055 J = 1.055 kJ
work done by a system is positive (+ w)
is more common in physics textbooks

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Slide No. 57 Slide No. 58

Total Energy of a System Laws of Thermodynamics

The total energy of a system is the sum of • First Law of Thermodynamics – Principle of Energy
its internal, kinetic and potential energies: Conservation
– Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be
Etotal = U + KE + PE converted from one form to another.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
We are interested only in the change in – Direction of energy transformations moves from high-
energy: grade to low-grade, not the other way, and becomes
more disordered.
∆Etotal = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE
• Low entropy = order = low probability
For infinitestimal chnges: • High entropy = disorder = high probability

dEtotal = dU + dKE + dPE - When energy changes forms, some of the energy is
wasted or lost as HEAT (not 100% efficiency)

For a stationary system, dKE, dPE = zero

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Slide No. 59 Slide No. 60

The First Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Properties The internal energy of a system can be changed by doing
work on it or by heating/cooling it.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with macroscopic
properties of a body, not atomic properties conservation of energy
– Volume, surface tension, viscosity, etc U = q + w
– Divided into two classes Heat and work are equivalent ways of
dU= dq+dw changing systems energy

• Intensive Properties: (density, pressure,…) Sign convention: we consider q and w to be positive if energy flows
– specified at each point in the system into the system.
– spatially uniform at equilibrium This convention is opposite to that in textbook of physics
• Extensive Properties: (volume, internal energy,...) For a cyclic process (Ui = Uf)  q = - w.
– Additive properties, in that the system property If, in addition, q = 0 then w = 0 P
is the sum of the values of the constituent parts (If the heat added to the system equal to
the work performed on the surroundings, T V
the system (internal) energy is constant)
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Slide No. 61 Slide No. 62

Some interpretations of The First
Law equation Classification of
Thermodynamic Processes
q = U - w
This equation says that any heat (q) enters the system must be isochoric: V = const
added to the internal energy of a system (∆U) or perform work on isobaric: P = const
the surroundings (-w).
isothermal: T = const
q + w = Usystem = -Usurrounding adiabatic: q=0

Any energy that enters the system (q+w) must come

from the surroundings

Usystem + Usurrounding = 0
Total energy of the universe does not change
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Slide No. 63 Slide No. 64

Example 4
State Functions Imagine that an ideal monatomic gas is taken from its
initial state A to state B by an isothermal process, from
 U, P, T, and V are the state functions. B to C by an isobaric process, and from C back to its
initial state A by an isochoric process. Fill in the signs of
 q and w are not: specifying an initial and final q, w, and U for each step.
states of a system does not fix the values of q
P,
and w, we need to know the whole process 105 Pa Step q w U
A
(the intermediate states). 2
AB + - 0
T=const
 Analogy: in classical mechanics, if a force is Heating
BC - + -
not conservative (e.g., friction), the initial and 1
B
C
CA + 0 +
final positions do not determine the work, the 1 2 V, m3
Cooling
entire path must be specified.
For mono-atomic gas
For a ideal gas: PV = nRT
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Slide No. 65 Slide No. 66

Heat Capacity-Specific Heat Heat Capacity of Water

• Every substance requires a unique amount of energy
per unit mass to change the temperature of that • By doing precise experiment, we can determine
substance by 1°C that the amount of energy to raise the temperature
• The specific heat c of a substance is a measure of this of one gm of water by 1°C is always 4.186 J. This
amount, defined as:
quantity of energy is equivalent to 1 calorie.
(units of J / kgoC)

• Or
Some value of C for water are:
– T is always the final temperature minus the initial temperature
4.186 J / goC
– When the temperature increases, T and q are considered to be
positive and energy flows into the system 1.00 cal/g oC
– When the temperature decreases, T and q are considered to be 1.00 BTU/lbm.oF
negative and energy flows out of the system
– c varies slightly with temperature

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Slide No. 67 Slide No. 68

Calorimetry- Calorimeter
Consequences of Different Specific Heats
• Calorimetry means “measuring heat”
• Air circulation at the beach
– In practice, it is a technique used to measure specific
– Water has a high specific heat
heat compared to land (soil, sand),
• Technique involves: – On a hot day, the air above the
– Raising temperature of object(s) to some value land warms faster,
– Place object(s) in vessel containing cold water of known – The warmer air flows upward and
mass and temperature cooler air moves toward the
– Measure temperature of object(s) + water after equilibrium beach, creating air circulation
is reached pattern.

A calorimeter is a vessel providing good insulation that • The cause for many natural phenomena is the
allows a thermal equilibrium to be achieved between difference in specific heats of various materials
substances without any energy loss to the environment
(styrofoam cup or thermos with lid) Note: specific heat of sand = 0.290 J/g °C

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Slide No. 69 Slide No. 70

Pressure-Volume Work (PV Expansion Against Constant

Work) Pressure
When a piston of area A moves out  The work done by a gas when it
through a distance dz, it sweeps out expands against a constant
a volume dV = A dz. The external external pressure, pex, is equal
pressure, pex, is equivalent to a to the shaded area in this
weight pressing on the piston, and
example of an indicator
the force opposing expansion is
diagram.
F = pex A.  PV work referred as flow work:
Work = -PexA.dz = -Pex.dV energy required to push matter
into the system
P.ΔV has a unit of work, referred
as PV work

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Slide No. 71 Slide No. 72

Examples ENTHALPY

• Heating a sealed can  it will expand Greek: Enthalpein= to warm in

and do work against the surrounding.
Enthalpy, H. (H=U+PV) The internal
• When gasoline is burned in a cylinder of energy of a system plus the product
a car engine, it moves the piston and of its volume and the external
does work against the crankshaft which pressure exerted on the system.
turns the wheels and moves the car.
Enthalpy: can be thought as the amount
• When a pot of water boils, the stream
of energy in a thermodynamics system
that forms expands against the air
for transfer between itself and
around, doing work by moving the air.
surroundings.

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The Enthalpy Slide No. 73

Enthalpy – Heat Capacity

Slide No. 74

Isobaric processes (P = const): By convention: w = -p V

H  U + PV - the enthalpy
U = q + w = q - PV = q -(PV)  q =  U + (PV)
q = C (T2 –T1) w = -P∆V=-P (V2 – V1)
 H  U + PV - the enthalpy
For a constant pressure process, the work is: U2 – U1 = q + w
The enthalpy is a state function, because U, P, and V are state
functions. In isobaric processes, the energy received by a system Applying 1st Law of Thermodynamics:
by heating equals to the change in enthalpy.
U2 – U1 = q – P (V2 – V1)
isochoric: q=U in both cases, q does not depend
isobaric: q=H on the path from 1 to 2. (U2 + PV2) – (U1 +PV1) = q

(H2 – H1)P = Cp (T2-T1)p

Consequence: the energy released (absorbed) in chemical
reactions at constant volume (pressure) depends only on the initial
ΔH = Cp ΔT
and final states of a system.
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Slide No. 75 Slide No. 76

Example 5:
The Enthalpy An aluminum cup contains 225 g of water and a
• Enthalpy is an extensive property 40-g copper stirrer, all at 27°C. A 400-g sample
of silver at an initial temperature of 87°C is
• Enthalpy is a state or point variable placed in the water. The stirrer is used to stir
• We can not measure total enthalpy, just the the mixture until it reaches its final equilibrium
change of enthalpy in the system, relative to the temperature of 32°C. Calculate the mass of the
reference state, to which we assign 0 enthalpy. aluminum cup.
The reference state = 1 atm and 25oC.
• Units of enthalpy: the same as for energy Given:
Specific heat of water: 4.18 J/g.K
• For water: the standard state is taken to be the Specific heat of copper: 0.385 J/gK
triple point (P= 0.006 atm, T= 0.01oC) Specific heat of aluminum: 0.903 J/gK
Specific heat of silver: 0.235 J/g/K
Perfect insulation.
Solution: 86.5 g

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Slide No. 77 Slide No. 78

Saturated Steam Table
Specific Heat of Water and Steam Table Steam contains heat (heat source). Properties along liquid-
vapor line are of great interest -- > Steam Table:

• Specific heat of water is quite high

• Water is good heat carrier
• Steam Table is useful for calculation of
heat processes involving water/steam
• Steam Table can be used to determine the
temperature, pressure, and specific
volume of liquid water, and water vapor
along the vapor-pressure line

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Slide No. 79 Slide No. 80

Saturated Steam Table
Steam Table
• Values: from triple point (0.01oC at 0.61 kPa) to
critical point (374.14oC at 22090 kPa)
• Standard condition: triple point: EInt=0; H=0.
• Change in energy between two states can be
computed
• Internal energy column: change in energy at
constant volume process;
• Enthalpy column: change in energy at constant
pressure processes

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Slide No. 81 Slide No. 82

Steam Table Steam Table

• The value of internal energy and enthalpy: arbitrary,
• Terminology: depending on the choice of standard conditions (418.9 and
167.6 values in the last example: arbitrary).
– Saturated liquid: liquid water in equilibrium with
• The differences (ΔU, ΔH) between them are not arbitrary;
its vapor
The difference = 251.3 kJ/kg: be the same regardless of the
– Saturated vapor (steam): vapor at boiling choice of standard conditions.
– temperature of the liquid. • The internal energy columns: information of constant
– Steam quality: percentage of vapor in the volume processes
– vapor-liquid mixture. • The enthalpy column: constant pressure processes.
– Super heated steam: water vapor at temperature
higher than water boiling point. + computation of internal energy applies to water heated in a
constrained space. If the same water was heated at
constant pressure, say in an open vessel, the enthalpy
change would be 419.0 - 167.6 = 251.4 kJ/kg.
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Slide No. 83 Slide No. 84

Steam Table Steam Table

• Liquid water: nearly incompressible (very small volume
change on heating or cooling)  the enthalpy change and For example, suppose 2 kg of liquid water at
internal energy changes are practically identical. 40°C are heated to 100°C The table tells us
that the internal energy at 40°C it is 167.6
• Water vapor is a gas and changes greatly in volume as its
pressure or temperature change. kJ/kg while at 100°C it is 418.9 kJ/kg.
• In water vapor is heated from 40°C to 100°C, the internal Therefore, this change in state requires that
energy change per kilogram is:
2507 - 2430 = 77 kJ/kg 418.9 - 167.6 = 251.3 kJ of energy be
while the enthalpy change is: absorbed per kilogram of water. The two kg
2676 - 2574 = 102 kJ/kg we heated would require twice that much
The extra 25 kJ represents the work done by the water vapor as it energy or 502.6 kJ.
expands against its surroundings.

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Slide No. 85 Slide No. 86

Reading Steam Table Problem :

Reading Steam Table is an important skill for solving Use the steam tables to find:
engineering problems. (a) the heat of vaporisation of water at 85 °C
Example 6: (b) the enthalpy of liquid water at 35 °C
Compute the energy requirements to convert 5 kg relative to H = 0 at 10 °C
water at 30oC to saturated steam at 90oC. (c) the enthalpy of saturated water vapour at
40 °C relative to H= 0 at the triple point;
Solution 6: and
(d) the enthalpy of superheated steam at
HL (30 °C) = 125.8 (kJ/kg) 2.5 atm absolute pressure and 275 °C
Hv (90 °C) = 2660.1 (kJ/kg) relative to H=0 at the triple point.
ΔH = 12671.5 kJ
Solution?:

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Slide No. 87 Slide No. 88

Saturated steam table Phase Transitions
Temperature Pressure Internal Energy (kJ/kg) Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
deg C (F) kPa(atm) Sat. Liquid Sat. Vapor Sat. Liquid Sat. Vapor • A phase transition: a substance changes from one
0.01 (32.02) 0.61 (.006) 0.0 2375 0.0 2,501 form to another
20 (68) 2.34 (.023) 84.0 2403 84.0 2,538
40 (104) 7.38 (.073) 167.6 2430 167.6 2,574 • Common phase transitions are:
60 (140) 19.94 (.197) 251.1 2457 251.1 2,610
80 (176) 47.39 (.467) 334.9 2482 334.9 2,644
* Solid  liquid (melting)
100 (212) 101.32 (1.00) 418.9 2507 419.0 2,676 * Liquid  gas (boiling)
120 (248) 198.53 (1.96) 503.5 2529 503.7 2,706
140 (284) 361.3 (3.56) 588.7 2550 589.1 2,734 • Phase transitions involve a change in the
160 (320) 618 (6.09) 674.9 2568 675.6 2,758 internal energy, but no change in temperature
180 (356) 1002 (9.88) 762.1 2584 763.2 2,778
200 (392) 1554 (15.3) 850 .. 7 2595 852.5 2,793 – Kinetic energy of molecules (which is related to
250 (482) 3973 (39.2) 1080.4 2602 1061.2 2,801 temperature) is not changing, but their potential energy
300 (572) 8581 (84.6) 1332.0 2563 1316.3 2,749
changes as work is done to change their positions
350 (662) 16513 ( 163) 1641.9 2418 1670.6 2,564
374.14 (704.5) 22090 (218) 2029.6 2030 2099.3 2,099

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Slide No. 89 Slide No. 90

Phase Transitions
• All phase changes can go in either direction
Latent versus sensible heat
– Heat flowing into a substance can cause melting (solid to
liquid) or boiling (liquid to gas) Latent heat
– Heat flowing out of a substance can cause freezing (liquid to
solid) or condensation (gas to liquid) Boiling water
• Latent heat of fusion Lf is used for melting or
freezing
• Latent heat of vaporization Lv is used for boiling or Sensible heat
condensing (somewhat larger for lower pressures)
Melting ice
• Large Lf of water is partly why spraying fruit trees with
water can protect the buds from freezing Latent heat
– In process of freezing, water gives up a large amount of
energy and keeps bud temperature from going below 0°C
Sensible heat

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Slide No. 91 Slide No. 92

Latent Heat vs. Sensible Heat Example

• Energy required to change the phase of a given • T=100oC
mass m of a pure substance is: =± .
• Hliquid water=419.0 kJ/kg
* L = latent heat – depends on substance and • Hsteam =2676.1 kJ/kg
nature of phase transition
• + (–) sign used if energy is added (removed) Latent heat of vaporization
• Latent heat of fusion; Latent Heat of Vaporization 2676.1-419.0=2257.1 kJ/kg

• Energy required to change the temperature of a

substance is called sensible heat

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Slide No. 93 Slide No. 94

Latent Heat of Water Example 7:

Latent Heats of Water at 1 atm.
1. Compute the energy requirements to convert 5
Latent Heat Latent heat of kg water at 30oC to saturated steam at 90oC.
of Fusion Vaporization 2. Determine the quality of steam at 143.27 kPa
at 0°C at 100°C. Units after a loss of 270 kJ/kg from the saturated
1.44 9.73 kcal/g-mol steam conditions. What is the steam
79.72 538.6 kcal/kg temperature?
143.6 970.1 btu/lb 3. How much heat must be removed to convert 1
334.1 2,257.1 kJ/kg lb steam at 220◦F to
(a) water at 220◦F;
(b) water at 120◦F?

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Slide No. 95 Slide No. 96

Solution 7: Solution 7:
3.2. Determine the quality of steam at 143.27 kPa after
3.1 Compute the energy requirements to convert 5 kg a loss of 270 kJ/kg from the saturated steam
water at 30oC to saturated steam at 90oC. conditions. What is the steam temperature?
HL (30 °C) = 125.8 (kJ/kg) Latent heat:
Hv (90 °C) = 2660.1 (kJ/kg) At 143.3 kPa, temp. is 110 °C ΔH = HV- HL = 2691.5-461.3
= 2230.2 (kJ/kg)
ΔH = 12671.5 kJ Hv (110 °C) = 2691.5 (kJ/kg)
HL (110 °C) = 461.3 (kJ/kg) Since Heat loss < Latent heat:
Temp. is constant (110 °C)

Amount of steam converted into liquid:

m = 0.121 kg
Quality of steam left:
% = (1-0.121)/1*100% = 87.9%

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Slide No. 97 Slide No. 98

Solution 7: Example 8:
3 kg of saturated steam at pressure of 200 kPa is
3.3 How much heat must be removed to convert 1 lb condensed and cooled to 40oC. How much energy is
steam at 220◦F to released?
(a) water at 220◦F; • Saturated steam
(b) water at 120◦F? – m=3 kg
– P=200 kPa (~2 atm)
– T=120 oC  40 oC (condensation)
1 lb = 0.454 kg – Hsteam(120oC)=2706.3 kJ/kg
220◦F = 104.4 °C ΔH1 = 1018.6 kJ – Hwater (40oC)=167.6 kJ/kg
– ΔE=??
120◦F = 48.9 °C Δ H2 = 1123.4 kJ
– For each kg of steam
Hv (104.4 °C) = 2683.8 kJ/kg • ΔE=2706.3 – 167.6 = 2538.7 kJ/kg
– Total energy change
HL (104.4 °C) = 440.2 kJ/kg • ΔE=3 x 2538.7 = 7616.1 kJ
HL (48.9 °C) = 209.3 kJ/kg – Latent heat
• 2706.3-503.5 = 2202.8 kJ/kg
– Sensible heat
• 503.5-167.6 = 335.9 kJ/kg
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Slide No. 99 Slide No. 100

Saturated steam table Evaporation and Condensation
Temperature Pressure Internal Energy (kJ/kg) Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
• Example 8 shows why a burn caused by 100°C steam
deg C (F) kPa(atm) Sat. Liquid Sat. Vapor Sat. Liquid Sat. Vapor
is much more severe than a burn caused by 100°C
0.01 (32.02) 0.61 (.006) 0.0 2375 0.0 2,501
20 (68) 2.34 (.023) 84.0 2403 84.0 2,538
water
40 (104) 7.38 (.073) 167.6 2430 167.6 2,574 – Steam releases large amount of energy through heat as it
60 (140) 19.94 (.197) 251.1 2457 251.1 2,610 condenses to form water on the skin
80 (176) 47.39 (.467) 334.9 2482 334.9 2,644 – Much more energy is transferred to the skin than would be
100 (212) 101.32 (1.00) 418.9 2507 419.0 2,676 the case for same amount of water at 100°C
120 (248) 198.53 (1.96) 503.5 2529 503.7 2,706
• Evaporation is similar to boiling
140 (284) 361.3 (3.56) 588.7 2550 589.1 2,734
160 (320) 618 (6.09) 674.9 2568 675.6 2,758
– Molecular bonds are being broken by the most energetic
180 (356) 1002 (9.88) 762.1 2584 763.2 2,778
molecules
200 (392) 1554 (15.3) 850 .. 7 2595 852.5 2,793 – Average kinetic energy is lowered as a result, which is why
250 (482) 3973 (39.2) 1080.4 2602 1061.2 2,801 evaporation is a cooling process
300 (572) 8581 (84.6) 1332.0 2563 1316.3 2,749 – Approximately the same latent heat of vaporization applies
350 (662) 16513 ( 163) 1641.9 2418 1670.6 2,564 – Reason why you feel cool after stepping out from a
374.14 (704.5) 22090 (218) 2029.6 2030 2099.3 2,099 swimming pool
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Example 9:
Slide No. 101
Solution 9: Slide No. 102

T vs. Q for Transition from Ice to Steam Final

state: 1 g
Determine the amount of heat needed to provide to 1 g of Initial of steam
state: 1 at 120°C
ice at –30°C to final state at 120°C as superheated steam g of ice
at –30°C Qtot = 3.11  103 J

C=1989
J/kg.C
(Tab A2.5)
• Path A: Temperature of ice changes from –30°C to 0°C
– q = mcice T = (1.00  10–3 kg)(1989 J/kg°C)(30.0°C) = 59.7 J
Latent
• Path B: Ice melts to water at 0°C heat of
–3 5
– q = mLf = (1.00  10 kg)(3.34  10 J/kg) = 334 J fusion:
• Path C: Temperature of water changes from 0°C to 100°C 334 kJ/kg
–3 3
– q = mcwater T = (1.00  10 kg)(4.19  10 J/kg°C)(100°C) = 419 J
• Path D: Water changes to steam at 100°C
– q = mLv = (1.00  10–3 kg)(2.26  106 J/kg) = 2.26  103 J
• Path E: Temperature of steam changes from 100°C to 120°C
– q = mcsteam T = (1.00  10–3 kg)(2.01  103 J/kg°C)(20°C) = 40.2 J
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Slide No. 103 Slide No. 104

Superheated Steam Table Example 10:

• How much heat is required to convert 1 kg of
water at 50oC to superheated steam at 75 kPa and
250oC?
– hliquid (50oC) = 209 kJ/kg (Table A.4.2)
– hsuperheated (75kPa, 250oC)=2975 kJ/kg (Table
A.4.3)
 ΔH=2975-209=2766 kJ/kg

• If the final steam is saturated vapor, how much

heat is needed?
– hsaturated (75kPa, 91.8oC)=2662 kJ/kg (Table A.4.2)
 ΔH=2662-209=2453 kJ/kg

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Slide No. 105 Slide No. 106

Problem Further Reading:
A 40-g block of ice is cooled to –78°C and is then
added to 560 g of water in an 80-g copper 1. R. Paul Singh, Dennis R. Heldman. 2013.
calorimeter at a temperature of 25°C. Determine Introduction to food engineering. Academic
the final temperature of the system consisting of Press. 5th Edition. (Ch. 1)
the ice, water, and calorimeter. (If not all the ice
2. Toledo, R.T. 2018. Fundamentals of Food
melts, determine how much ice is left.)
Remember that the ice must first warm to 0°C, Processing Operations. 4th Edition. Springer,
melt, and then continue warming as water. The New York, NY. (Ch. 4+5)
specific heat of ice is 0.500 cal/g°C = 2090
HW:
J/kg°C.
1.7; 1.10 (S&H, Chap 1)
4.1, 4.2, 4.4; 4.5; 5.5; 5.9; 5.11 (TO, Chap 4+5)
Solution: 16°C
2

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