NETWROKING LESSONS

MODULE 1
The Internet is the connectivity of Global Networks cooperating with each other to exchange data using common
standards. The Network of Networks.

 Tracert domain name to check the connectivity of a domain name

TYPES OF NETWROKS
Local Network: Connects a few Computers together and linked them to the Internet.
SOHO: (Small Office-Home Office), This entails the connectivity of a Computer to a Corporate Network
Or Central Data Base.

1. LAN: Local Area Network – A collection of devices connected together in a single limited location (a
building, office, home
Like all Networks, uses Hosts, Peripherals, Network Media and Network Intermediary for deployment but not
connected to the internet. Alao uses MAC address to communicate with a NIC (Network Interface Card)
installed on each device.

Medium to Large Networks: Many Locations with hundreds or thousands of hosts/devices., BANKS,
SCHOOLS, HOSPITALS having headquarters and Branches connecting together.

2. WAN: Wide Area Network - spanning beyond a single building or large campus but includes multiple
locations spread across a specific Geographical area or the World. Some WAN/MAN connects many LANs
together. Usually combines multiple infrastructures operated by several providers.

3. MAN: Metropolitan Area network - Having the attributes as WAN

4. PAN: Personal Area Network – Connects devices within a user immediate area e.g. Bluetooth connection to
smartphone, infra-red connection, home routers connection etc.

5. CAN: Campus Area Network – interconnects multiple LANs within an educational organization or corporate
campus
END DEVICES:
 Mobile Phones * Smart CCTVs * Medical Devices (Pacemakers, Insulin Pumps
etc.)
 Smart Watches * Smart Watches * Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Tag
 Smart TVs etc. * Smart Home Appliances etc.

INTERNET OF THINGS (IOTs) and INTERNET OF EVERYTHING (IOEs)

This refers to the connection of things to the internet like Cars, Homes, CCTVs, Farm Techs, Weather Control
Systems, Medical Devices etc.

TYPES OF PERSONAL DATA

Volunteer Data; Created and Voluntarily given by individuals, like names, Age, Personal records, Videos, Pictures etc.
Observed Data: captured data by monitoring activities of an individual like mobile locationor noted Information
from provide/Volunteer Data
Inferred Data: Usage of Information from Volunteered and Inferred Data

THE BIT
Computers and network only work with binary digits. Data is measured in Bit i.e. Binary using 1s (Ones) and 0s
(Zeros). Each character we make use of is represented by 8 digit bits e.g. letter A = 01000001, Number 9 = 00111001
etc.
ASCII- America Standard Code for Information Interchange

BANDWIDTH:
This is the capacity of a medium/cable to carry data over a network using size. Digital Bandwidth measures the
amount of data that can flow through a medium. Data Size is measured in bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes,
Terabytes.

THROUGHPUT
Measure the amount of data being sent across network or data base using time as measure in consideration of
Latency (the amount of time including delays for data to travel from one [point to another)

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of ba
Kilobyte: Thousands of bits per second kbps 1 kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps
Megabyte: Millions of bits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106
Gigabyte: Billions of bits per second Gbps 1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bps = 1
Terabyte: Trillions of bits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bp

METHODS OF DATA TRANSMISSION

1. Electrical Pulse: Converts data into electrical pulses and transmitted via media/ cables
2. Wireless: Uses Radio Waves, infrared, Microwaves to transmit data e.g. Routers, Satellites etc.
3. Light Pulse Data is converted into light pulses and transmitted over a network usually long distance
transmissions.

CLIENTS AND SERVERS

1. E-MAIL SERVER: Runs e-mail software to access and distribute emails across a network.
2. INETRNET/WEB SERVER: Runs on web server software to disseminate internet services across a network.
3. FILE SERVER: Stores Corporate and user files in a central location.
PEER 2 PEER NETWROKS
Connection of 2 Computers usually via media cables or wireless
 Easy to set up
 Less complex than other network types
 Low cost of because network devices are not required running and maintenance.
 Can be used for simple tasks like file sharing etc.

PEER 2 PEER APPLICATIONS

Allows a device to act as both the server and the Client e.g. mobile phones.

NETWROK/SERVER MULTIPLE ROLES:

A computer Server can perform multiple roles simultaneously acting as the Mail, Web and File Server but must have
all the 3 applications (Web, File and Mail server application) installed in it.

NETWROK INFRASTRUCTURES/CONPONENTS
1. END DEVICES/HOSTS: Phones, Smart TVs. Computers, Teleconferencing, Security Cameras etc.
2. INTERMEDIARY DEVICES: Acts as the connector between the end devices and the network e.g. Router,
Switches,
3. NETWROK MEDIA: This entails the medium of transmission like Cables, Wireless and Optical
4. PERIPHERALS: This doesn’t operate on its own but depends on the Host to function e.g. Printers.

NETWORK MULTIPLE ROLES

A Computer can provide multiple roles in a network if its installed with the relevant/ necessary software and
applications to do so i.e. A Computer can be the Email Server, Web Server and the File Server at the same time
with.

MODULE 2

WIRELESS NETWORKS

1.Cell Phone Networks: Mobile Phones, Tabs etc.

2. GPS: Global Positioning System
3.Wi-Fi
4.Bluetooth
5.NFCs: Near Field Communication, data can be exchanged by devices in close proximity like Card Swipes

LOCAL NETWROK/ LAN COMPONENTS

1. Hosts: This is the generic name for most end users like personal computers, network attached printers etc.
2. Peripherals: This device depend on their hosts to communicate to the network e.g. cameras, scanner etc.
 3. Network Devices: This device connects their hosts to the server serving as an intermediary e.g. Switches,
Routers, Hubs etc.
4. Network Media: Provides connection between host and network devices and can be wired or wireless media.

END DEVICES ADDRESSING

In order for devices to communicate across a network either local or wide networks, there is need for addressing.
This is the through which messages are sent specifically to the individual host. A Network Interface Card (NIC) must
be pre-installed before the device can be connected to and communicate with a network.
The IP configuration is in 3 parts and all must be correct for the device to communicate within the network:

IP ADDRESS: (Device Number) This identifies the Host/ end device on the network as it comes pre-installed on all
devices.
SUBNET MASK: (Network Number) This identifies the network on which the host is connected.
DEFAULT GATEWAY: (NETWORKING DEVICE NUMBER) This identifies the Networking Device that the Host is using
to connect to access the internet or another remote Network such Switches, Routers etc.

Note: IP address and default gateway address usually look alike. (192.168.1.2 etc.) while subnet mask is static on
all devices (255.255.255.1)

STATIC/ MANUAL ADDRESSING

Manual configuration of a network address by a Network Administrator. The IP address that is assigned is referred
to as a Static Address and must be unique on all the network.

DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGUIRATION PROTOCOL (DHCP): This is the configuration of end devices to receive network
configuration dynamically. The DHCP Server assigns an address to all connected devices within the network.

SSH: Secured Shell, connecting to a Switch on Remote Router via a command Line Interface in encrypted secured text
VPN: Remote private connection on a public network, messages are encrypted form public.
DNS: Domain Name Systems: converts domain names to IP address and back
 * Every device has an ARP cache table
* For a device to communicate on a LAN, it must have both the MAC and IP address
* Default gateway is necessary for devices to communicate across networks (Internet) but not necessary for LAN

How Switches Create MAC ADDRESS TABLE

1. Examines the Sources MAC address when it receives a Frame
2. Send a broadcast message (1 to all connected host requesting for the
3. Messages on the Switch level is called a FRAME and PACKET at the Router level

ROUTING TABLE

Difference Between MAC Address and IP Address





Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a device on the internet. NIC Card’s Manufacturer
provides the MAC Address, on the other hand, the Internet Service Provider provides the IP Address. In this article,
we will learn about MAC Addresses, IP Addresses, and their differences.

What is MAC Address?

MAC, or Media Access Control is a unique identifier that is carved on the computer hardware to connect the system
to other systems of the network address. It uses the NIC – Network Interface Controller to create a communication
segment to establish communication between systems on the same network. MAC Address works for a local
network.

What is the Format of the MAC Address?

MAC Address is represented as a group of 6 hexadecimal numbers, each group consisting of two hexadecimal
numbers. It is also called a 6-byte hexadecimal number. For eg. This is an example of a MAC Address: 01-23-45-67-
89-BC.
What are the Types of MAC Address?
There are 3 types of MAC Addresses:
 Unicast MAC Address: Unicast MAC Address is an example of a transfer of data on the same network from a
single system to another single system. This takes place on a special NIC through a local network. If the least
significant bit of the 1st octet is 0, it is identified as a MAC Address.
 Multicast MAC Address: Multicast MAC Address, as the name suggests is when data is transferred from multiple
devices to multiple devices on the same network. Unlike unicast MAC Address, here the source is also multiple
and so is the receiver. If the least significant bit of the 1st octet is 1, it is identified as a Multicast MAC Address.
 Broadcast MAC Address: In Broadcast MAC Address, all devices within a network share data to their host
systems. This takes place on LAN – Local Area Network. It is represented by setting all hexadecimal digits equal
to 1. For eg. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF.

What is an IP Address?
IP Address, or Internet Protocol Address is a unique identifier for every system that has internet connectivity. The
major difference between MAC address & IP address is that IP address has a global network, whereas MAC address
operates only in a local network. It is used to establish a communication between networks & systems of several
networks. The IP address can be used for broadcasting or multicasting.

What is the Format of a IP Address?

IP address is a 32-bit, 4 group address that consists of numbers separated in a decimal format. For eg. 198.168.2.33.
We also have a common form of IP address, that is whitelisted IP address which is written as 0.0.0.0, which means
that it can receive data from anywhere. This is generally not considered a safe option as whitelisting means
welcoming cyber attacks.

What is the Importance of an IP Address?

IP address is an essential part as it allows the service provider to identify networks & their address provide
information about the network & data being shared. IP address is stored on every computer that is connected to the
internet & this helps their communication over LAN – Local Area Network, or over internet.

Difference Between MAC Address and IP Address

The main difference between MAC and IP address is that MAC Address is used to ensure the physical address of the
computer. It uniquely identifies the devices on a network. While IP addresses are used to uniquely identifies the
connection of the network with that device takes part in a network.
Let’s see the difference between MAC Address and IP Address:
 MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address stands for Media Access Control

IP Address stands for Internet Protocol Address.
Address.

IP Address is either a four-byte (IPv4) or a sixteen-byte

MAC Address is a six byte hexadecimal address.
(IPv6) address.

A device attached with MAC Address can retrieve A device attached with IP Address can retrieve by RARP
by ARP protocol. protocol.

NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC

Internet Service Provider provides IP Address.
Address.

MAC Address is used to ensure the physical

IP Address is the logical address of the computer.
address of a computer.

MAC Address operates in the data link layer. IP Address operates in the network layer.

IP Address identifies the connection of the device on the

MAC Address helps in simply identifying the device.
network.

MAC Address of computer cannot be changed with

IP Address modifies with the time and environment.
time and environment.

MAC Addresses can’t be found easily by a third

IP Addresses can be found by a third party.
party.

It is a 48-bit address that contains 6 groups of 2 IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses in dotted notations, whereas
hexadecimal digits, separated by either hyphens (-) IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses in hexadecimal notations.
or colons(.). Example:
Example: IPv4: 192.168.1.1
00:FF:FF:AB:BB:AA IPv6: FFFF:F200:3204:0B00
or
 MAC Address IP Address

00-FF-FF-AB-BB-AA

No classes are used for MAC addressing. IPv4 uses A, B, C, D, and E classes for IP addressing.

In IP address multiple client devices can share the IP

MAC Address sharing is not allowed.
address.

MAC address help to solve IP address issue. IP addresses never able to solve MAC address issues.

The IP address can be used for broadcasting or

MAC addresses can be used for broadcasting.
multicasting.

MAC address is hardware oriented. IP address is software oriented.

While communication, Switch needs MAC address While communication, Router need IP address to
to forward data. forward data.

Conclusion
Both MAC address & IP address are unique identifiers that connect to those systems which have an internet
connectivity. They differ in the aspect that MAC address is a local area network address, whereas IP address is a
global area network. There are many differences too in terms of their configurations, format which once read in
the tabular format shown above would help us to understand the differences and benefits clearly.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
This refers to how Network connectivity is done and arrange especially in a large network infrastructure scenario
which could be Physical Topology or Logical Topology.

NETWORK DOCUMENTATION
Assigning names and addresses (I.P, Subnet and Default Gateway addresses)
 MODULE 3

PACKET TRACER TRAINING, DEPLOYMENT AND PRACTICES (PRACTICAL)

MODULE 4

TYPES OF MEDIA/CABLES FOR DATA TRANSMISSION /NETWROKING USE OF PACKET TRACER

1. Media or Cable Transmission: Metal Wires within Cable, Data is encoded into electrical pulses.
A.) TWISTED PAIR CABLES
 *Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) commonly used in Europe, STP cables are immune to EMI, RFIs
interference and expensive to deploy because of the shielding, also not flexible.

*Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) commonly used in North America Areas. Versatile for ethernet
connections to connect work stations, hosts and network devices. Its also comes in two standards.
T568A and T568B.

It is imperative whatever type of the cable that is used for ethernet Local Networking should be
used all through the Network without mix another type i.e. if T568A is used at the initial stage of a
networking operation, same type should be used all through the operation.

B.) COAXIAL CABLES

Carries data in the form of electrical pulses and used commonly for satellite TV and other satellite
communication systems. Usually terminated with a BNC or F-Series connector. It’s completely shielded
from EMI and RF interferences.

2. Fiber Optic Transmission: Glass or Plastic Fibers within Cables: Data is encoded into Light pulses.
Parts/Layers of the Fiber Optic Cable includes:
* Jacket: The outer layer, a PVC jacket that protects the cable against moisture, abrasion and
contamination.
* Strengthening Material: Prevents the Cable from being stretched when pulled.
* Buffer: Shields the Core and Cladding from damage
* Cladding: Acts more like a mirror
* Core: This is the part that carries/ transmits data.

3. Wireless Transmission: Data is encoded via modulation of specific frequencies of electro-magnetic waves.

THE PING COMMAND: Used to verify network connectivity

 Every host/ device that sends a message across a network must have an IP address.
 The Ping Command is used to check connectivity between the Host and the receiver/destination.
 Also measures the time it takes to make a successful message transmission round trip Host – Destination –
Host.
 For example ping 192.168.1.1 or ping www.cisco.com in the command prompt.

THE TRACEROUTE COMMAND:

  Traces the route a message takes from destination to source (the network, server and devices path)
 HOP is the individual path through which a message travel.
 The traceroute command displays each HOP a message travels and the time it takes on each.
 Traceroute is also known as tracert in the windows OS.

MODULE 5

THE 3 ELEMENTS OF NETWORK

The Primary essence of network is communication usually between devices or other networks
1. The Source/Sender: People or End Devices
2. The Receiver/Destination: Receives and Interpret the message
3. The transmission Medium or Channel: Message pathway from source to destination

RULES OF COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

1. Language to use
2. Method to Use
3. Delivery Report
4. Medium to use

Message Format: Using a specific format or structure to send message e.g. exe.txt. jpg editable or not editable
format.
Message Size: It follows the same structure across network a and longer messages could be broken into fractions
depending on the types e.g. text /sms messages above 160 words would be broken if longer.
Timing: Instant or delayed. Timing determines the speed at which a message can deliver or be sent
Encoding: Messages can be encoded using encryptions and deciphered by the receiver.
Encapsulation: This is the enveloping of a message with a Header, Message size
Message Pattern: Messages across networks often requires acknowledgement of receiver’s availability before the
message is sent.
THE NETWROK & INTERNET STANDARD
This standard governs how messages are transmitted across networks using the same standard and protocols.

IEEE
IANA
IETF
ICAN
ITU
TIA

NETWROK COMMUNICATION MODELS

THE PROTOCOL STACK

The Interaction between hosts and networking requires the implementation of both hardware and software
installed on both for a successful communication and this follows through a protocol.

HTTP: Hyper Text Transmission Protocol - This Protocol governs how a web server and a web client interacts.

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol – Manages the individual Communication Protocol…our WhatsApp and E-mail
communication goes to the specific individuals we want to communicate with specifically without jamming into
other messages.

IP: Internet Protocol – Responsible for delivering messages from the sender to the receiver and back if necessary,
using the individual address (IP address). This protocol ensures that the message for Computer A is not delivered to
Computer B, c, or D.

ETHERNET: This is a method of communication amongst devices on the same network using Network Interface Card
(NIC) using cables.

THE TCP/ IP MODEL

TCP: Uses 3-way handshake to establish connection/communication protocol Sends sync first, the other device sends
back ack/sync and ack by the requesting device.
TCP makes use of acknowledgement. Manages individual communication using port numbers to manage flow of
communications.

ETHERNET: Local area Network using media/wired communication

TCIP/IP MODEL LAYER

APPLICATION –
HTTP: Hypertext Transmission Protocol – It is the foundation of any web-based data exchange. It connects the web
server to the browser providing information in a readable format.it operates by Client-Server protocol.

HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer protocol Secure – Its an extension of the HTTP but more secured by encrypting data sent
from web server to the web pages.

DNS: Domain Name System – translate domain name into an Internet Protocol address (IP address).

SSH: Secure Shell Protocol – uses encryption to secure the connect between a Client and a Server within a network.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol –

SMH:
LTP, etc.

TRANSPORT:
Transport Control Protocol (3 Way handshake and reliable but quite slow, segments packets and gives them
numbers. Makes use of acknowledgment &
UDP- User Datagram Protocol, fast but unreliable. for live streaming, Voice over IP

INTERNET: Determines the best path through the Network. Routers, Satellites etc.

NETWROK ACCESS: Switch, NIC, Cable

THE OSI MODEL (Please Do Not Throw This Sweet Pizza Away)
1. PHYSICAL -
2. DATA LINK -
3. NETWORK –
 4. TRANSPORT
5. SESSION -
6. PRESENTATION -
7. APPLICATION –

NOTE: In a real-life scenario Network troubleshooting and issue addressing is done in reference to the layers.
Every layer of the model has specific function and can be rectified without affection the other layers

ENUMERATES THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWROK TOPOLOGIES

1. BUS NETWROK TOPOLOGY: CSMA (Career Sense Multiple action)/ CD (Collision Detection) OR CA ( Collision
Access)uses ½ duplex

2. RING NETWROK TOPOLOGY: Operates by rational or anti-clockwise

3. TOKEN RING: Communication is allowed until token gets to a system within a network before communication
can be established

4. STAR: Multiple system connecting to one intermediary to establish communication within a Network. Also
uses ½ duplex as only one device can communicate per time.

5. MESH

6. HYBRID

ETHERNET MAC ADDRESS (Hardware Address)

(press (ipconfig /all) enter) ion the command prompt to get my IP address
This is the personal address of a device, the first numbers is for the device manufacturer
 MOPDULE 6

NETWORK DESIGN AND ACCESS LAYERS

THE TCP/IP MODEL

The TCP/IP model is a fundamental concept in networking that provides guidelines for how data should be
transmitted over the internet. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a concise version
of the OSI model, consisting of four to five layers, depending on the reference. The layers in the TCP/IP model are
designed to handle specific tasks during the communication process, ensuring efficient and reliable data transfer.

Internet Protocol (IP) is a method that is useful for sending data from one device to another from all over the
internet. It is a set of rules governing how data is sent and received over the internet. It is responsible for addressing
and routing packets of data so they can travel from the sender to the correct destination across multiple networks.
Every device contains a unique IP Address that helps it communicate and exchange data across other devices present
on the internet.

Working of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) model breaks down the data into small bundles and afterward reassembles the
bundles into the original message on the opposite end to make sure that each message reaches its target location
intact. Sending the information in little bundles of information makes it simpler to maintain efficiency as opposed to
sending everything in one go.
After a particular message is broken down into bundles, these bundles may travel along multiple routes if one route
is jammed but the destination remains the same.
TCP
For Example: When a user requests a web page on the internet, somewhere in the world, the server processes that
request and sends back an HTML Page to that user. The server makes use of a protocol called the HTTP Protocol.
The HTTP then requests the TCP layer to set the required connection and send

1. Physical Layer: This layer is responsible for the physical transmission of data over network devices. It includes
the hardware and all the cabling, connectors, and electronics involved in data transfer.

2. Data Link Layer: This layer is where data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It provides node-to-
node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes. It also handles error correction from the
physical layer.

3. Internet Layer: Also known as the Network Layer, this layer is responsible for moving packets across different
networks. It uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to route packets from the source to the destination by their IP
addresses. Protocols like IP, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), and Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
operate at this layer.

4. Transport Layer: This layer provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It utilizes protocols
like Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) to ensure data is transferred
reliably and without errors.

5. Application Layer: The topmost layer of the TCP/IP model, the Application Layer, is where end-user protocols
such as HTTP, SMTP, FTP, and DNS operate. It provides services directly to user applications.
How the TCP/IP Model Works
The TCP/IP model works by dividing data into packets (segments) at the sender's end and then reassembling these
packets at the receiver's end. This process helps maintain the integrity and accuracy of the data. Each layer in the
model has a specific function, and data passes through these layers in a predefined order. For instance, when you
send an email, the data goes through the Application Layer down to the Physical Layer at the sender's end, and then
in reverse order at the receiver's end.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that helps in the
exchange of messages between different devices over a network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the
technique for sending data packets between computers, works with TCP.
The position of TCP is at the transport layer of the OSI model. TCP also helps in ensuring that information is
transmitted accurately by establishing a virtual connection between the sender and receiver.

 It allows for the interconnection of different types of computers.

 It operates independently of the operating system.
 It supports many routing protocols and has a scalable client-server architecture.

Key Protocols in the TCP/IP Model

 IP (Internet Protocol): Determines the IP address of the destination and routes the data packets accordingly.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data transmission by establishing a connection and
managing the data transfer process.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides a connectionless service for applications that do not require the
overhead of TCP.

THE OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different computer systems
communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities.
This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a
clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to
understand how network systems function.
In this article, we will discuss the OSI Model and each layer of the OSI Model in detail. We will also discuss the flow of
data in the OSI Model and how the OSI Model is different from the TCP/IP Model.
Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All the layers are mentioned
below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received
and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common
physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This
clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.

 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network
i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
  Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to
make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a
network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link
layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the NIC
(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire
asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits
that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of
the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of
the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also
takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes
available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the
Network layer is referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in
the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.

The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data
if an error is found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation,
and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a
web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

  Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections, management of connections,
terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and security. Protocols used in the
Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use,
and terminate a connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-
duplex or full-duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in
their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create
the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer
are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves
as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the
user. Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS,

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to access files in a remote host,
retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels
down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 SENDER RECEIVER
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Sending: ENCAPSULATION

Receiving: DE-ENCAPSULATION

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels
down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed
upon arrival.

We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example mentioned below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens
at Application Layer).

Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it
for transmission.

Step 3: At Session Layer, There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet.

Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking
information to maintain the reliability of the information.

Step 5: At Network Layer, Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer.

Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices
and then it checks for error using error detection.

Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network
medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the
email will be shown on Person B email client.
Protocols Used in the OSI Layers
Layer Working Protocol Data Unit Protocols

1 – Physical Establishing Physical Connections

Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer between Devices.

2 – Data Link
Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer

3 – Network Transmission of data from one host to

Packets IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF, etc.
Layer another, located in different networks.

4 – Transport Take Service from Network Layer and Segments (for TCP) TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
Layer Working Protocol Data Unit Protocols

or Datagrams (for
Layer provide it to the Application Layer.
UDP)

Establishes Connection, Maintenance,

5 – Session
Ensures Authentication and Ensures Data NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP, etc.
Layer
security.

6– Data from the application layer is

TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Presentation extracted and manipulated in the Data
PNG, ASCII, etc.
Layer required format for transmission.

7 – Application Helps in identifying the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Data
Layer synchronizing communication. etc.

Why Does The OSI Model Matter?

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of “how the data moves in the network?”. As
the OSI Model consists of 7 layers, each layer has its specific role, and due to which it helps in understanding,
identifying and solving the complex network problems easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI Model is still very helpful for solving network
problems. It helps people understanding network concepts very easily.

Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Model. Package delivery is not guaranteed in the TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, Only layers 1,2 and 3 are necessary All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data
for data transmission. transmission.

Protocols at each layer is independent of the other Layers are integrated, some layers are required by other
layer. layers of TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual framework, less used in Widely used in actual networks like Internet and
practical applications. Communication Systems.

ENCAPSULATION AND THE ETHERNET FRAME

ENCAPSULATION

Encapsulation is the process of adding additional information when data is traveling in an OSI or TCP/IP model. The
information has been added on the sender’s side, from the Application layer to the Physical layer.
OSI Model and Working of Encapsulation
 No additional information will be added to the user’s data in the Application layer in the TCP/IP model or the
Application, Presentation, or Session layers in the OSI model.

 The Session layer sends data to the Transport layer.

 In the Transport layer, the data is broken up into different pieces. It adds the header in each of the broken
data, which contains information like source port, destination port, sequence number, etc. Now, everything is
combined into a new form.

 The encapsulated data in the Transport layer is called Segments or Datagrams. If the transmission uses TCP,
then it is called Segments, or UDP is called Datagrams.
  Now, the data will travel down and reach the Network layer. Here, layer 3 header is added. That contains
information like source IP, destination IP, and so on. This information combines into a new form. The
encapsulated data in the network layer is called Packets.

 Now, the network layer sends the packet to the Data Link layer When it enters into the data link layer, a new
header (Layer 2) is added. Also, a trailer is added. It contains information like source MAC address,
destination MAC address, and so on. The trailer is used for error checking. The encapsulated data in the data
link layer is called Frames.

 The physical layer takes frames from Data Link layer. The encapsulated data in the physical layer is called
Bits.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

The encapsulated data is called by different names when it travels down following layers. Those names are
called Protocol Data Unit. The following table shows the name of encapsulated data in each layer.

De-Encapsulation
De-encapsulation is the exact reverse process of encapsulation. The additional information added on the sender’s
side(during encapsulation) gets removed when it travels on the receiver’s side from the Physical layer to the
Application layer.

OSI Model and Working of De-encapsulation

 The Physical layer gets the bits and de-encapsulates them into frames and sends them to the upper layer.
 The Data Link layer receives the frames and checks MAC address whether it is matching or not. If everything
matched and also no error is found. Then layer 2 header and layer 2 trailer are removed. It de-encapsulates
the data and packet sent to upper layer.
 The Network layer receives the packet from Data Link layer. It checks for IP addresses. If it matched then, the
header in layer 3 is removed. Now the de-encapsulated data packet is delivered to the Transport layer.
 Now, the Transport layer gets the data segments/ datagrams from the Network layer and removes the layer
4 header.
 After traveling through Session, Presentation, and Application layer, the de-encapsulated data is sent to the
receiver.
 That is how the de-encapsulation takes place.
Every message sent across a network is done using a specific format called a “Frame” that includes the source and
destination addressed.

Communication across a Wireless Network uses IP addresses for both sender and receiver while it uses Mac Address
on an ethernet wired Local Area Network.

IP NETWROK
Messages are encapsulated in a Packet
The header of a message shows detail of the content of the message like Address (IP address, Traffic Class, Payload
Limit, Hop Limit, Version and Flow Label)
ETHERNET NETWORK
Messages are encapsulated in a Frame
Messages are put into a frame or a 2 layers Protocol Data Units
The header of a message includes Preamble/SFD, Source & Destination MAC address, Type &Length of the
message, Data, FCS.

HOP LIMIT FOR WINDOWS IS 64 and 124 FOR OTHER OS

HIERACHICAL NETWROK DESIGN

Hierarchical Network Design is now considered to be the best practice industry-wide to design networks that are
reliable, resilient, scalable, and also cost-effective. Initially, networks were designed in a Flat Topology where the
end devices were connected using Hubs and Switches. In order to add more devices or more users, more
Switches/Hubs were added to the network. This Flat network design would cause a delay in the network if in case the
network grows and also because of the use of Hubs and Switches it would be very difficult for the admins to control
and limit the broadcast traffic or filter the undesired traffic in the network.

FLAT NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Because of the above limitations of the Flat Network Design, a Hierarchical Network Design Model was introduced.
In a Hierarchical model, the network is divided into distinct layers. These layers (also known as Tiers) are connected
with one another in the form of a hierarchy which enables the network to be divided into more manageable blocks
and these blocks limit the local traffic to remain local even if it is broadcast traffic. A hierarchical Model can be
applied for both LAN and WAN Network design.

HIERACHICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Access Layer:
This layer consists of end devices (end-users, local servers, etc.) that have local access to the network.
 The Access Layer (commonly referred to as the network edge) is where the end-user devices connect to the
network.
 It provides high-bandwidth connectivity.
 It provides Layer 2 Switching capabilities.
 Services like Port Security, Quality of Service (QoS), ARP Inspection are used in this layer.
 Discovery and Configuration Services like CDP, LLDP also run in the Access Layer.
 This layer plays a big role in protecting the network and malicious attacks because of its connection with the
endpoints of the network.

Distribution Layer:
This layer basically provides policy-based connectivity and acts as a boundary between the Access Layer and the Core
Layer. Data Filtering and Routing take place in this layer.
 The Distribution Layer is mainly responsible for collecting/aggregating data from the Switches of the Access
Layer and distributing it to the rest of the network.
 It acts as a border as well as a connector to both the Access Layer and the Core Layer.
 It provides policy-based security by using Access Control Lists (ACLs) and filtering.
 The use of routing services (like EIGRP, OSPF. Etc.) also takes place in this layer.
 It provides Redundancy and Load Balancing.

Core Layer:
This layer is often considered to be the Backbone of the network which provides fast transport between the switches
present in the Distribution Layer of the network. The Core Layer is considered to be the Backbone of the network and
acts as an aggregation point for multiple networks.
 It consists of high-speed network devices responsible for switching packets as fast as possible.
 It provides interconnectivity between the Distribution Layer devices.
 It provides reliability and fault tolerance to maximize performance.
 It also plays a crucial role in avoiding CPU-intensive packet manipulation caused by security services
(restrictive ACLs), Quality of Service (QoS) classification, inspection, etc.

COLLAPSED CORE NETWORK DESIGN

A Collapsed Core is when the functions of the Distribution Layer and the Core Layer are implemented by a single
device. This type of Network Design is used by Small Scale Enterprises to implement their networks as their network
is not large enough, and they might be unable to bear the high cost of the network devices. Therefore, these
Enterprises use the Collapsed Core Topology Network Design (2-Tier Hierarchical Network Design) to reduce the
network cost while maintaining most of the benefits, functions, and services offered by the 3-Tier Networks.

ETHERNET BROADCAST IN THE LOCAL AREA NETWROK

The Switch uses Broadcast to communicate a general message to the hosts/connected devices. This happens when a
MAC address of a message is unknown to the switch; the switch then send the message to the devices quoting the
MAC address and asking to know which device it belongs to. The switch uses a default MAC address FFF.FFF.FFF

BROADCAST DOMAIN
This is the containment in which broadcast message can travel in a network.
Each Local Ethernet Network in a large LAN and WAN is the broadcast domain.

OSPF – Open Shortest Path First

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP). It is a link-state routing protocol that uses
the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to calculate the best route. OSPF routing protocol is an open standard, so
various network vendors implement it.
Here are the most important features of OSPF:
 A classless routing protocol
 Supports VLSM, CIDR, manual route summarization, equal cost load balancing
 Incremental updates are supported
 Uses only one parameter as the metric – the interface cost.
 The administrative distance of OSPF routes is, by default, 110.
 Uses multicast addresses 224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.6 for routing updates.

Routers running OSPF protocol have to establish neighbor relationships before exchanging routes. Because
OSPF is a link-state routing protocol, neighbors don’t exchange routing tables. Instead, they exchange
information about network topology. Each OSPF router then runs SPF or Dijkstra algorithm to calculate the
best routes and adds those to the routing table. Because each router knows the entire topology of a network,
the chance for a routing loop to occur is minimal.
Each OSPF router stores routing and topology information in three tables:
 Neighbor table – stores information about OSPF neighbors
 Topology table – stores the topology structure of a network
 Routing table – stores the best routes

BGP – Boarder Gateway Protocol

The protocol can connect any internetwork of the autonomous system using an arbitrary topology. The only
requirement is that each AS have at least one router that can run BGP and that is the router connected to at least
one other AS’s BGP router. BGP’s main function is to exchange network reachability information with other BGP
systems. Border Gateway Protocol constructs an autonomous systems graph based on the information exchanged
between BGP routers.
  Inter-Autonomous System Configuration: The main role of BGP is to provide communication between two
autonomous systems.
 BGP supports the Next-Hop Paradigm.
 Coordination among multiple BGP speakers within the AS (Autonomous System).
 Path Information: BGP advertisements also include path information, along with the reachable destination
and next destination pair.
 Policy Support: BGP can implement policies that can be configured by the administrator. For ex:- a router
running BGP can be configured to distinguish between the routes that are known within the AS and that
which are known from outside the AS.
 Runs Over TCP.
 BGP conserves network Bandwidth.
 BGP supports CIDR.
 BGP also supports Security.

Functionality of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

BGP peers perform 3 functions, which are given below.
 The first function consists of initial peer acquisition and authentication. both the peers established a TCP
connection and performed message exchange that guarantees both sides have agreed to communicate.
 The second function mainly focuses on sending negative or positive reach-ability information.
 The third function verifies that the peers and the network connection between them are functioning correctly.

Importance of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

 Security: BGP is highly secure because it authenticates messages between routers using preconfigured
passwords through which unauthorized traffic is filtered out.
 Scalability: BGP is more scalable because it manages a vast number of routes and networks present on the
internet.
 Supports Multihoming: BGP allows multihoming means an organization can connect to multiple networks
simultaneously.
 Calculate the Best Path: As we know data packets is traveled across the internet from source to destination
every system in between the source and destination has to decide where the data packet should go next
 TCP/IP Model: BGP is based on the TCP/IP model and it is used to control the network layer by using
transport layer protocol.

Types of Border Gateway Protocol (eBGP & iBGP)

  External BGP: It is used to interchange routing information between the routers in different autonomous
systems, it is also known as eBGP (External Border Gateway Protocol). The below image shows how eBGP
interchange routing information.

 Internal BGP: It is used to interchange routing information between the routers in the same autonomous
system, it is also known as iBGP (Internal Border Gateway Protocol). Internal routers also ensure consistency
among routers for sharing routing information. The below image shows how iBGP interchange routing
information.

RIP – Routing Information Protocol

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol that uses hop count as a routing metric to find the
best path between the source and the destination network. It is a distance-vector routing protocol that has an AD
value of 120 and works on the Network layer of the OSI model. RIP uses port number 520.
Hop Count
Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the source and destination network. The path with the
lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a network and therefore placed in the routing table. RIP
prevents routing loops by limiting the number of hops allowed in a path from source and destination. The maximum
hop count allowed for RIP is 15 and a hop count of 16 is considered as network unreachable.
Features of RIP
1. Updates of the network are exchanged periodically.
2. Updates (routing information) are always broadcast.
3. Full routing tables are sent in updates.
4. Routers always trust routing information received from neighbor routers. This is also known as Routing
on rumors.
 Full Duplex Opereations
Builds MAC address table
Sends message to specific device port

Only one device can send at a time (Half Duplex)

Takes signal from one Port and send message to all

Time to Live (TTL) and Hop Limit

Time-to-live in networking refers to the time limit imposed on the data packet to be in-network before being
discarded. It is an 8-bit binary value set in the header of Internet Protocol (IP) by the sending host. The purpose of a
TTL is to prevent data packets from being circulated forever in the network. The maximum TTL value is 255. The
value of TTL can be set from 1 to 255 by the administrators.
The usage of TTL in computing applications lies in the performance improvement and management of data caching.
It also finds its use in Content Delivery Network (CDN) caching and Domain Name System (DNS) caching.

How Time-To-Live (TTL) Work?

The number of hops a packe travels before being discarded by a network is known as the time to live (TTL) or hop
limit. The maximum range for packets is indicated by TTL values.

The sending host sets the initial TTL value as an eight-binary digit field in the packet header.
The datagram’s TTL field is set by the sender and reduced by each router along the path to its destination.
The router reduces the TTL value by at least one while forwarding IP packets.
When the packet TTL value hits 0, the router discards it and sends an ICMP message back to the originating host.
This system ensures that a packet moving via the network is dropped after a set amount of time, rather than looping
indefinitely.

In IPv6, it is known as hop limit and in IPv4, it is known as TTL. The Hop field is same as the TTL field in IPv4

Example of TTL
In the scenario below, Host A wishes to interact with Host B using a ping packet. Host A uses a TTL of 255 in the ping
and transmits it to Router A, its gateway. When Router A notices that the packet is going for a layer 3 i.e. Network
layer, it hops to Router B, reduces the TTL by 255 – 1 = 254, and delivers it to Router B. Router B and Router C
decrement the TTL in the same way. Router B decrements TTL in a packet from 254 to 253 and Router C decrements
the TTL from 253 to 252. The ping packet TTL is decreased to 252 when it reaches Host B.
** Error checking technics in ethernet frame and IP frame

MODULE 7

 *Routers uses Network portion of an IP address to send message to the switch, it doesn’t see the
connected hosts directly. The switch then identifies the Host address (The last digits in the IP address) and
MAC address to send the message directly.
 No device can communicate with another device without a MAC address except on a router/internet
network.

** Each Router interface connects to a different network

** Routing table contains information for how to reach Local and Remote network

** Router sends messages using destination IP address in comparison to the network address to determine the
interface to send the packet out of.

** Routers don’t send broadcast message

** Routing table determines the best path to send a packet.

** If a packet is destined for a network that’s not on the Routing table, the packet will be dropped.

DEFAULT GATEWAY

 The default gateway is the node that forwards the packet from the source to other networks when there is no
routing information about the destination i.e. host (or router) does not know where the destination is
present.
 A default gateway is a route to which information is passed when the device does not know where the
destination is present.
 It is used when there is no routing information available about the destination.
 It is a node that allows the communication of computers on different networks.
 ‘Default’ here means the default route which is to be taken when the host does not know where the
destination is.
 It is most commonly used for webpage access.
 This is an important part of networking for routing the data and finding the corresponding destination which
is in another network.

When Default Gateway is Used:

When the source wants to reach a destination which is outside its network then, the source uses the default gateway
to forward the data and locate the destination’s network so that data should reach its intended destination. The
default gateways are used when the host doesn’t know about the destination’s network i.e. the network in which the
destination is present or when the route information is not available for any destination then it goes to the default
gateway so that it can identify in which network the destination is and can forward the data through that route. The
default gateway is an important device for the data forwarding and routing of the data on the other network. It
helps in the communication of one network computer with the other network computer.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

** Under one administrative control
** LAN could be wired (ethernet) or wireless network depending on the size
** LAN can make use of the Router depending on the Network Topology.
** Router in LAN is used for broadcast containment and network segmentation.

ADDRRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL(ARP)

When computer programs send or get messages, they usually use something called an IP address, which is like a
virtual address. But underneath, the real talk happens using another type of address called a MAC address, which is
like a device’s actual home address.

How ARP Works

Imagine a device that wants to communicate with others over the internet. What does ARP do? It broadcast a packet
to all the devices of the source network. The devices of the network peel the header of the data link layer from
the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) called frame and transfer the packet to the network layer (layer 3 of OSI) where the
network ID of the packet is validated with the destination IP’s network ID of the packet and if it’s equal then it
responds to the source with the MAC address of the destination, else the packet reaches the gateway of the network
and broadcasts packet to the devices it is connected with and validates their network ID. The above process
continues till the second last network device in the path reaches the destination where it gets validated and ARP, in
turn, responds with the destination MAC address.

1. ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the source where it is stored in a table for
future reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.

2. ARP Cache Timeout: It indicates the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache can reside.

3. ARP request: This is nothing but broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came across
the destination MAC address or not.
 The physical address of the sender.
 The IP address of the sender.
 The physical address of the receiver is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF: FF or 1’s.
 The IP address of the receiver.

4. ARP response/reply: It is the MAC address response that the source receives from the destination which aids
in further communication of the data.

The goal is to find out the MAC address of where we want to talk to. That’s where ARP comes in handy. It helps by
turning the IP address into the physical MAC address, so we can chat with other devices on the network
Most computer programs/applications use logical addresses (IP Addresses) to send/receive messages. However, the
actual communication happens over the Physical Address (MAC Address) from layer 2 of the OSI model. So our
mission is to get the destination MAC Address which helps communicate with other devices. This is where ARP comes
into the picture; its functionality is to translate IP addresses into physical addresses.
In conclusion, ARP helps computers find each other’s physical addresses on a network so they can communicate
effectively. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is like a translator for computers on a network. When one computer
wants to talk to another, it needs to know the other computer’s physical address (MAC address). But all it has is the
other computer’s IP address (like its home address). So, ARP steps in and asks, “Hey, who has this IP address?” The
computer with that IP address responds with its MAC address, and then they can chat.

Note: ARP finds the hardware address, also known as the Media Access Control (MAC) address, of a host from its
known IP address.

Note: An ARP request is broadcast, and an ARP response is a Unicast.

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR (URL)

A URL or Uniform Resource Locator is a Unique identifier that is contained by all the resources available on the
internet. It can help to locate a particular resource due to its uniqueness. It is also known as the web address. A URL
consists of different parts like protocol, domain name, etc. The users can access the URLs by simply typing them
inside the address bar or by clicking any button or link web page.

Structure of a URL
A URL starts with a protocol followed by the name of the resource that has to be accessed. URL uses the protocols as
the primary access medium to access the domain or subdomain specified after that wherever the resource is located.
It uses multiple protocols like HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), HTTPS Protocol (Secured HTTP), mailto for
emails, FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for files, and TELNET to access remote computers. Mostly the protocol names
are specified using the colons and the double forward slashes, but the mailto protocol is specified using the colons
only.
NEED FOR ROUTING:
1. Broadcast containment: Broadcast messages stop at the Router level (Distribution Layer) in a multi network
thus reducing density of messages that could slow down the network.

2. Security: Routing provides better security measures by limiting and checkmating the accessibility of messages
in a network, also has the ability to protect the IP addresses of some devices as it has the ability to separate
some devices at Distribution layer.
3. Locations: Interconnect networks at various locations. (One Organization multiple Branches but same
network)

4. Logical Grouping: Routers in the distribution can be used to group departments in the same organization
together.

The First 3 Portion of an IP address is for the network while the last portion is for the host or devices.
THE ROUTING TABLE

The Path Selection

 Each router interface connects to a different network

 The Router contains information on how to reach local and remote connections/ devices
 The destination IP address determines the path to send the data from ( web, image, etc.)
 Routers don’t forward broadcast messages, it rather contains broadcasts
Packet Forwarding
• The destination MAC address is used to forward the packet to either the router if the destination IP address is
for a different network or a specific network device on the local network.
• The ARP table shows a mapping of IP address to MAC address.

Routing Table Entries

• A routing table contains network addresses and the best path to reach a network.
• Two ways routes can be added to a routing table
• Dynamically learned from other routers
 • Manually entered by a network administrator
• A default route is the router interface used when forwarding packets to a destination that is not in the
routing table.

If a packet is destined for a network that is not in the routing table and no default route exists, the packet will be
dropped

The Default Gateway

A default gateway is a route to which information is passed when the device does not know where the
destination is present. It is used when there is no routing information available about the destination.

‘Default’ here means the default route which is to be taken when the host does not know where the destination
is.
It is most commonly used for webpage access.
This is an important part of networking for routing the data and finding the corresponding destination which is in
another network.
PC IPv4 Address Subnet Mask Default
Gateway

H1 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.254

H2 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.254
H3 192.168.1.3 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.254

Local Area Network LAN

 One Administrative Control

 Wired or wireless
 LAN NETWORK

MODULE 8

THE INTERNET PROTOCOL

IPv4 ADDRESS
IPv4 is a logical and unique network address that identifies a particular host in a network.

Routers that operate on Internet also have an IP address.

It is required by networking devices to ensure packets are sent to a specific machine and any reply are sent to the
appropriate source.

THE IPv4 ADDRESS STRUCTURE

IP stands for Internet Protocol version v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4), is the most widely used system for
identifying devices on a network. It uses a set of four numbers, separated by periods (like 192.168.0.1), to give each
device a unique address. This address helps data find its way from one device to another over the internet.
It is a series of 32bits binary address decimated into 4 Octets consisting of 8 bits -bytes each.
IPv4 addresses consist of two parts mainly:
 Network Part: The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to the network. The
network part conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s assigned.
  Host Part: The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This part of the IPv4 address is
assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host half must vary.

The Ipv4 address structure also have Classes for various specific deployment and operations:

CLASS A consists of 8 bits having a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 is deployed for extremely large networks 0.0.0.0/8 to
127.0.0.0/8
*This implies that implies that Class A uses 8 bits for network and 24 bits for hosts

CLASS B consists of 16 bits with a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 used for medium to large networks and ranges from
128.0.0.0/16 to 191.255.0.0/16 and uses 16 Network bits and 16 Hosts bits

CLASS C consists of 24 bits with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 is designed to support small network with large
number of Hosts and ranges from 192.0.0.0/24 to 223.55.255.0/24

Other parts:
 Subnet Number: This is the non-obligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have massive numbers of hosts
are divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.

IPv4 address: contains the network address and host. It is Globally routed by Internet Service Providers

Default Gateway: This is the common address of all Hosts within a network and similar to the IP address

Subnet mask: The subnet Mask identifies which IPv4 address belongs to Host and which belongs to the Network e.g
255.255.255.0 means the first 3 decimals of 192.168.1.1 belongs to the Network. If it comes like 255.255.0.0, it
implies the first two decimals of the IP belongs to the Network depending on the class of address.

THE IPv4 ADDRESS COMES IN TWO MODES – PRIVATE AND PUBLIC IP ADDRESS

Private IP Addressing
Private IP Addresses are those addresses that work within the local network. These addresses are non-routable on
the Internet. The address is basically assigned by the network router to your particular device. The unique private IP
address is provided to every device which is on the same network. In this way, devices communicate with one
another on the same network without connecting to the entire Internet. In this way, Private IP addresses are able to
provide more security within a particular network. The private IP address cannot be seen on the Internet, unlike
the public IP address. Only devices within the local network are able to see the address of one another.
Private IP address exists within the specific ranges as reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
Following are the address ranges of private IP addresses:

The range except assigned to Private IP Address is used to assign Public IP Address on a network as public IP
addresses are unique for each device on the Internet. Therefore, private networks can use these address ranges for
allocating private IP addresses in a specific network. Private IP addresses can be reused on another network which is
not possible with Public IP addresses.

Uses of Private IP Addresses

1. Home Networks: Many domestic routers use personal IP addresses to assign unique addresses to devices in
the home network. This allows more than one device along with computers, smartphones, TVs, and IoT
devices to communicate with every device securely.
 2. Business Networks: In large organizations, private IP addresses are used to create inner networks that join
computers, servers, printers, and other devices. This permits employees to share assets and collaborate while
maintaining protection and privacy.

3. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): VPNs create encrypted connections over public networks, allowing
customers to get access to private networks remotely.

4. Cloud Computing: Many cloud provider offer virtual personal clouds (VPCs) where clients can deploy
resources which includes virtual machines, databases, and containers. Private IP addresses are used within
VPCs to facilitate communication between these resources at the same time as separating them from
different clients’ environments.

** Private IPv4 are not routable on the internet (can’t be used outside the local network)

** Network Address Translation (NAT) translates the private the private IPv4 address to a public IPv4 to be able
communicate across networks

** Network Address Translation takes place on the Router automatically Home Routers

BINARY CONVERSION OF INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS

An IPv4 address is a series of 32 bits divided into 4 octets of 8 binary each. Each octet is contained in a decimal
portion.

192 . 165 . 56 .1
(8 binary) (8 binary) (8 binary) (8 binary)

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128

11000000 10100101 00111000 00000001

 When a host receives an IPv4 address, it looks at all 32 bits as they are received by the NIC.

Humans convert those 32 bits into their four-octet decimal equivalent.

Each octet is made up of 8 bits and each bit has a value.

• The rightmost bit in an octet has a value of 1 and the values of the remaining bits, from
right to left, are 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128.
You can determine the value of the octet by adding the values of positions wherever there is a
binary 1 present:

• If there is a 0 in a position, do not add the value.

• If all 8 bits are 0s, 00000000 the value of the octet is 0.
• If all 8 bits are 1s, 11111111 the value of the octet is 255 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1).
• If the 8 bits are mixed, such as the example 00100111, the value of the octet is 39
(32+4+2+1).

CALCULATING THE HOST AND NETWORK

The subnet masks most often used with networking are:

• 255.0.0.0 (8-bits)
• 255.255.0.0 (16 bits)
• 255.255.255.0 (24 bits)
A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (decimal) or
11111111.11111111.1111111.00000000 (binary) uses 24 network bits and 8 host bits.

• To determine how many hosts can be on that network, take the number 2 to
the power of the number of host bits (2 8 = 256).
• Subtract 2 (256-2) for numbers that cannot be used
• Broadcast address of all 1s in the host portion
• Network ID of all 0s
• Another method - Add all values of the available host bits
(128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1 = 255).
• Subtract 1 (255-1 = 254), because the host bits cannot be all 1s.
CLASSFUL ADDRESS
An IP address is an address that has information about how to reach a specific host, especially outside the LAN. An
IP address is a 32-bit unique address.
Classful IP addressing is a way of organizing and managing IP addresses, which are used to identify devices on a
network. Think of IP addresses like street addresses for houses; each device on a network needs its unique address to
communicate with other devices.

 **IP addresses are globally managed by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and Regional Internet
Registries (RIR).

Class A 8 bits (Subnet Mask is 255.0.0.0)

IP addresses belonging to Class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher-order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in the first octet are used to
determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network. The default subnet mask
for Class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
Class B is 16 bits (Subnet Mask is 255.255.0.0)
Class B
IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range from medium-sized to large-sized networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The remaining 14 bits are used
to determine the network ID. The 16 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network. The default
subnet mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total of:
 2^14 = 16384 network address
 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255.

Class C is 24 bits (255.255.255.0)

IP addresses belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
 The network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C is always set to 110. The remaining 21 bits are used
to determine the network ID. The 8 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network. The default subnet
mask for class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C has a total of:
 2^21 = 2097152 network address
  2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
IP addresses belonging to class C range from 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255.

Class D
IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting. The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses
belonging to class D is always set to 1110. The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize.
Class D does not possess any subnet mask. IP addresses belonging to class D range from 224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255.

Class E
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP addresses of class E
range from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255. This class doesn’t have any subnet mask. The higher-order bits of the
first octet of class E are always set to 1111.
CLASSLES ADDRESS

SUBNETING

** Routers only need to know how to reach the network while the switch delivers directly to the host in the
network.

NAT
** NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION is used to convert Private IPv4 address to public IPv4 address which is usually
done on the Router that connects the Local Network to the Internet Service Provider. Private IP can’t be used via the
internet for security reasons, the NAT system automatically issues a public IP address for public communication via
the Router.
**One public IP address can be used by Hosts but differentiated by their Port Numbers.

NETWROK ADDRESS TRASLANTION (NAT)

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP addresses are translated into one or
more Global IP addresses and vice versa to provide Internet access to the local hosts. It also does the translation of
port numbers, i.e., masks the port number of the host with another port number in the packet that will be routed to
the destination. It then makes the corresponding entries of IP address and port number in the NAT table. NAT
generally operates on a router or firewall.

Generally, the border router is configured for NAT i.e. the router which has one interface in the local (inside) network
and one interface in the global (outside) network. When a packet traverse outside the local (inside) network, then
NAT converts that local (private) IP address to a global (public) IP address. When a packet enters the local network,
the global (public) IP address is converted to a local (private) IP address.
If NAT runs out of addresses, i.e., no address is left in the pool configured then the packets will be dropped and an
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) host unreachable packet to the destination is sent.
  Inside local address – An IP address that is assigned to a host on the Inside (local) network. The address is
probably not an IP address assigned by the service provider i.e., these are private IP addresses. This is the
inside host seen from the inside network.

 Inside global address – IP address that represents one or more inside local IP addresses to the outside world.
This is the inside host as seen from the outside network.

 Outside local address – This is the actual IP address of the destination host in the local network after
translation.

 Outside global address – This is the outside host as seen from the outside network. It is the IP address of the
outside destination host before translation.

TYPES OF NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION

Static NAT
In this, a single unregistered (Private) IP address is mapped with a legally registered (Public) IP address i.e one-to-one
mapping between local and global addresses. This is generally used for Web hosting. These are not used in
organizations as there are many devices that will need Internet access and to provide Internet access, a public IP
address is needed.
Suppose, if there are 3000 devices that need access to the Internet, the organization has to buy 3000 public
addresses that will be very costly.

Dynamic NAT
In this type of NAT, an unregistered IP address is translated into a registered (Public) IP address from a pool of public
IP addresses. If the IP address of the pool is not free, then the packet will be dropped as only a fixed number of
private IP addresses can be translated to public addresses.
Suppose, if there is a pool of 2 public IP addresses then only 2 private IP addresses can be translated at a given time.
If 3rd private IP address wants to access the Internet then the packet will be dropped therefore many private IP
addresses are mapped to a pool of public IP addresses. NAT is used when the number of users who want to access
the Internet is fixed. This is also very costly as the organization has to buy many global IP addresses to make a pool.

Port Address Translation (PAT)

This is also known as NAT overload. In this, many local (private) IP addresses can be translated to a single registered
IP address. Port numbers are used to distinguish the traffic i.e., which traffic belongs to which IP address. This is most
frequently used as it is cost-effective as thousands of users can be connected to the Internet by using only one real
global (public) IP address.

** Provides basic security by hiding internal IP from the rest of the network.

** Reduces the chance of direct attacks on internal network’s IPs by camouflaging the real Private IP with
a virtual public IP

 NAT conserves legally registered IP addresses.

 It provides privacy as the device’s IP address, sending and receiving the traffic, will be hidden.
 Eliminates address renumbering when a network evolves.

UNICAST TRANSMISSION
It’s a Host-to-Host communication in a normal Client/Server or peer-to-peer communication. It uses the address of
the receiving Host as the destination address and can be Routed through a Network e.g. WhatsApp Messaging, SMS
etc.

This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of a single sender and a single recipient. So, in
short, you can term it a one-to-one transmission. For example, if a device having IP address 10.1.2.0 in a network
wants to send the traffic stream (data packets) to the device with IP address 20.12.4.2 in the other network, then
unicast comes into the picture. This is the most common form of data transfer over networks.
** An ARP request is broadcast, and an ARP response is a Unicast.

BROADCAST TRANSMISSION
“Also known as 1 to All”, Broadcast Packets are sent to all Hosts in a Network regardless of their individual
addresses. The broadcast is limited to LAN Network as Routers does not forward Broadcast messages and can be
used for Broadcast containment by subdividing the Local Network.

Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types:

Limited Broadcasting: Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all the devices over the network that your
reside, this broadcasting comes in handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all the 32 bits of IP
address set to 1) called Limited Broadcast Address in the destination address of the datagram (packet) header
which is reserved for information transfer to all the recipients from a single client (sender) over the network
Direct Broadcasting: This is useful when a device in one network wants to transfer packet stream to all the devices
over the other network. This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the destination address to 1,
referred to as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information transfer.

** Routers does not send Broadcast data, It can be used for broadcast containment.

MULTICAST TRANSMISSION
In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data transfer traffic. In this method traffic
recline between the boundaries of unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all). Multicast lets servers direct single
copies of data streams that are then simulated and routed to hosts that request it. IP multicast requires the support
of some other protocols like IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast routing for its work. Also in
Classful IP addressing Class D is reserved for multicast groups.

Allows the sending of a Packet to a selected number of specified Hosts in a large Network. The Hosts that receive
multicast packets are called “Multicast Clients”

** The Hosts within a LAN having an IPv4 address will be able to communicate directly to each other but not
without a Router to communicate outside their Network.

** Every packet sent across a source and destination IPv4 address (Sender and Receiver’s address)
** Routers that provides access to the internet must also have an IPv4 address.

MODULE 9

IPv4 ADDRESSING
Assigning IPv4 address to Hosts in a Network can be done DYNAMICALLY (Automatically) or STATICALLY (Manually)

STATIC ADDRESSING: MANUAL NETWORKING CONFIGURATION

A Static IP address is an IP address that does not changed frequently or constantly it is reserved for a specific
computer or device. This type of IP address does not dynamically change with time, but will only change through an
action done by the user or the network administrator. Assigning Static IP address is common in servers, network
devices or any device that has to have a fixed address that can be accessed from a distance.

Static addressing are assigned to devices that need to retain a fixed IP address to provide services over time such as
Printers, Servers, Routers and other Networking Devices.

All addresses (IPv4, Subnet Mask, Default Gateway and DNS has to be done/assigned manually on each of the Hosts
in the Network. Addresses are also assigned to Printers, Network Devices and other peripherals connected in the
Network.

When Static IPs are Needed?

Static IP addresses are especially important in cases where a device has to be quickly found over the internet on a
permanent basis.
 Web Servers: A website must have one or more static IP addresses to be assigned to the domain always point
to the correct server.

 Remote Access: Some of the devices that require a remote connection like the CCTV cameras or a VPN are
preferable to be as static as possible.

 Hosting Servers: Game or email servers that are in constant use also need a static IP so that the services
running in the background remain undisturbed.

 Secure Communications: Some devices that participate in secure communications might require static IPs to
make the link stable and reliable.

*It is time consuming

*Prone to errors

DYNAMIC ADDRESSING: AUTOMATIC NETWORKING CONFIGURATION

The Dynamic Hosts Configuration Protocol is the automatic way of addressing all Hosts and peripherals devices
connected to a Network.
DHCP automatically assigns all addresses such as IPv4, subnet Mask, Default Gateways and DNS server to the
devices.
*Reduces the burden of Network Staff
*Eliminate Entry Errors.
This is what ISPs use to assign addresses to every new connected device to their Networks.
Also, in a Home Network or SOHO, wireless Routers does the DHCP addressing.

A Dynamic IP address is an IP address which changes from time to time. In contrast to the static IP, an IPv6 address
is obtained by DHCP server – (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically. In the DHCP, a host receives an
available IP address from the DHCP server for some period of time referred to as the lease time and the IP address
given to the host may change. Dynamic IPs are more common for home and commercial appliances and other
electronic devices for which it is not necessary to have a constantly changing IP address.

DHCP AUTO ADDRESSING PROTOCOL

 The Client/Device sends a DHCPDISCOVER message to the Server requesting for automatic configuration
using Broadcast
 The Server responds with DHCPOFFER with an IPv4 addressing information
 The device then sends DHCPREQUEST message to the server requesting/accepting the offered IPv4 address
 The server then sends DHCPACK message to the Client to grant the request and confirm the offer.

** A device can be a DHCP server if it runs the DHCP service software

** DHCP Servers are usually connected to a LAN because it uses broadcast message for its addressing protocol.
** In a SOHO network, the Router act as the DHCP server to all end devices

IPV6 Network uses 3 methods for IP addressing i.e SLAAC

SLAAC
The Router does what is known as RA (Router Advertisement) which is sent across to every device on the network.
When
a new device is connected, the device sends what is called RS Router Solicitation then the Router send the prefix

DAD- Duplicate Address Detection, which uses NS (Neighbor solicitation) & NA (Neighbor Advertisement) is used to
check if no other device has the same address on the same network.

Extended Unique Identifier (EUI) 64

COMPRESSING AN IPv6 address

 ALWAYS REMOVE THE STARTING ZEROS

  THE ZEROS BETWEEN NUMBERS AND ALPHABETS ARE TURNED TO SEMI COLON

MODULE 10

NETWORK BOUNDARIES

Routers as Gateways

 Routers are used to connect Networks

 Each Router interface connects a different Network
 Routers restricts Broadcast within a Network
 Address Resolution Protocol and Network Address Translation takes place on the Router
 The IPv4 address assigned to the Router on each interface is the default gateway for all the connected
Hosts

Router as Gateway in a Network

Router as Boundaries between Networks

NAT: Network Address Translation – Private IP can’t be used via the internet for security reasons, the NAT system
automatically issues a public IP address for public communication via the Router.

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP addresses are translated into one or
more Global IP addresses and vice versa to provide Internet access to the local hosts. It also does the translation of
port numbers, i.e., masks the port number of the host with another port number in the packet that will be routed to
the destination. It then makes the corresponding entries of IP address and port number in the NAT table. NAT
generally operates on a router or firewall.

Generally, the border router is configured for NAT i.e. the router which has one interface in the local (inside) network
and one interface in the global (outside) network. When a packet traverse outside the local (inside) network, then
NAT converts that local (private) IP address to a global (public) IP address. When a packet enters the local network,
the global (public) IP address is converted to a local (private) IP address.
If NAT runs out of addresses, i.e., no address is left in the pool configured then the packets will be dropped and an
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) host unreachable packet to the destination is sent.
** NAT is used to convert Private IP address used by a Company or Organization to a public IP address that can be
routed on the internet.
** One public IP address can be shared by many Private IP addresses using Port numbers to differentiate them

STATIC: Mapping a particular private IP address to the public address, all devices have their own public IP address.

DYNAMIC: First come first serve method of apportioning IP addresses to the host, issuing the same set of public
addresses to the devices. A set of device gets first and re-issues to other devices when done
PAT: Sharing of one public IP address but communicates via different ports.

DUAL STACK:
This is an IP address transition method. With the dual-stack solution, every networking device, server, switch, router,
and firewall in an ISP’s network will be configured with both IPv4 and IPv6 connectivity capabilities. Most
importantly, dual-stack technology allows ISPs to process IPv4 and IPv6 data traffic simultaneously.

This allows both IPv4 and IPv6 to coexist on the same network segment. The dual stack devices runs both Ipv4 and
IPv6 addresses simultaneously.

TUNNELING
This is the process of transporting and IPv6 packet over an IPv4 network. The Ipv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4
packet.
SLAAC
Stateless Address Auto-Configuration, allows a Host to create its own IPv6 address by using Router Solicitation to
request for an address from the Router and the router respond with Router Advertisement sending prefix (network
address), prefix length (subnet mask) and default gateway information. The Host then use the information from the
Router to generate its own IPv6 (Global Unicast Address-GUA) address.

MODULE 11
TRANSPORT LAYER SERVICES

CLIENT SERVER RELATIONSHIP

The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or workloads between the
providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters called clients. In the client-server
architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to the server through the internet, the server
accepts the requested process and delivers the data packets requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of
their resources. Examples of the Client-Server Model are Email, Web, File etc.

How Does the Client-Server Model Work

 Client: When we say the word Client, it means to talk of a person or an organization using a particular
service. Similarly in the digital world, a client is a computer (Host) i.e. capable of receiving information or
using a particular service from the service providers (Servers).

 Servers: Similarly, when we talk about the word Servers, It means a person or medium that serves
something. Similarly in this digital world, a Server is a remote computer that provides information (data) or
access to particular services.
So, it is the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as it is in the database.
For those new to networking concepts, the System Design Course provides a comprehensive overview of the client-
server model and its applications in modern computing.
Client Server Model

HOW IT WORKS: CLIENT-SERVER

 User enters the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The Browser then requests the DNS
(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.
 DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.
 The DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.
 The Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to the WEB Server’s IP (provided by the DNS server).
 The Server sends over the necessary files for the website.
 The Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is done with the help
of DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter, and JS Engine collectively known as
the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.
The client-server architecture consolidates resources on servers for greater control and security, allows for flexible
client options, and relies on a robust network for scalability and efficiency. While there are cost implications, the
client-server model remains fundamental and has been shaped by trends such as cloud computing.

 There is no specific device called a Server until a Web Server application/Client is installed in such device.
Same goes with e-mail and file server.
 A Server is a Host running a server software application or providing server services to other hosts in a
network.

URI, URN & URL

• Protocol/scheme - HTTPS or other protocols such as FTP, SFTP, mailto, and NNTP
• Hostname - www.example.com
• Path and file name - /author/book.html
• Fragment - #page155
 URI – UNIFORM RESOURCE IDENTIFIER
Similar to URL, URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) is also a string of characters that identifies a resource on the
web either by using location, name or both. It allows uniform identification of the resources.
A URI is additionally grouped as a locator, a name or both which suggests it can describe a URL, URN or
both. The term identifier within the URI refers to the prominence of the resources, despite the technique
used.
The former category in URI is URL, during which a protocol is employed to specify the accessing method of
the resource and resource name is additionally laid out in the URL. A URL may be a non-persistent sort of the
URI. A URN is required to exist globally unique and features a global scope.
A string identifier that points to an online resource is called a URI, or uniform resource identifier. Any resource
on the internet can be identified by this string of characters by either its name, its location, or both. Scheme,
authority, path, query, and fragment are all contained in a URI. The most widely used URI systems
include ftp, Idap, telnet, HTTPs, HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), etc.

Syntax of URI
 Scheme: A scheme is the initial part of a Uniform Resource Locator (URI). It consists of a string of characters,
which can be any combination of a letter, number, plus sign, or hyphen (_), and is followed by a colon (:). The
most widely used protocols are irc, file, ftp, data, and http. It is necessary to register the schemes with IANA.
 Authority: Two slashes (//) come before the optional authority component. There are three smaller parts to
it:
o user details: It might have a colon (:) between the username and an optional password.
o host: It has an IP address or a registered name on it. The IP address has to be put in square brackets []
around it.
o Path: Optional
 Port: A series of path segments divided by a slash (/) make up this path. It is always supplied by the URI;
however, the path may be null or empty.
 Query: It is an optional element that comes before the question mark (?). It has a non-hierarchical query
string with data in it.
 Fragment: It is an optional element that comes before the hash (#) symbol. It is made up of a fragment
identification that points the way to a backup resource.

URN - UNIFOIRM RESOURCE NAME

A Uniform Resource Name (URN) is a kind of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) this is used to uniquely
perceive resources at the net in a chronic and region-unbiased way. Unlike Uniform Resource Locators (URLs),
which specify the location of a useful resource and how to get right of entry to it, URNs are meant to function
continual, globally specific identifiers for sources irrespective of their contemporary region.
The primary reason of URNs is to provide a strong and lengthy-lasting identifier for resources, even supposing
their place or access strategies trade over time. URNs are normally used for naming sources which includes
documents, articles, books, and other types of virtual content.
** URN identifies only the namespace without reference to the protocol (http or https) i.e. facebook.com/me

URL - UNIFORM RSOURCES LOCATOR

URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is often defined as a string of characters that is directed to an address. It provides a
way to retrieve the presentation of the physical location by describing its network location or primary access
mechanism.

To locate a resource on the internet, use a Uniform Resource Locator or URL. It serves as both a resource
reference and an access point. A unique resource—which could be an image, an HTML page, a CSS document,
or anything else—is always displayed by a URL.

The protocol is described within the URL which is employed to retrieve the resource and resource name. The
URL contains http/https at the start of the resource may be a web-type resource. Similarly, it begins with ftp
 FTP If the resource may be a file and mailto if the resource is an email address. The syntax of a URL is shown
below where the primary part is employed for protocol and the remainder of the part is employed for the
resource which consists of a website name or program name.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/minimum-cost-graph
Here, the domain name describes the server (web service) and program name (path to the directory and file
on the server).

Syntax of URL
Every HTTP URL adheres to its generic URI’s syntax. As a result, the syntax of the URL and the URI are
comparable. It is provided below:
 Scheme: A scheme is the initial part of a URL; it is a protocol that a browser must employ in order to seek a
resource. HTTP and HTTPS are the protocols that are most often used for websites.
 Authority: The domain name and port, two sub-components of the authority, are separated by a colon. The
resource’s registered name, such as javatpoint.com, can be used as the domain name, and the port on a web
server serves as the technical entry point to the resource. For HTTP, port 80 is used, and for HTTPS, port 443.
 Path: The path on the web server shows the full route to the resource. A possible format is
/software/htp/index.html.
 Query String: The string containing the name and value pair is known as the query string. When it appears in
a URL, the information is provided by following the path component. “?key1=value1&key2=value2” is one
example.
 Fragment: It is an optional element that comes before the hash (#) symbol. It is made up of a fragment
identification that points the way to a backup resource.
 For Ex: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-url-and-uri/

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)

This is a communication standard that allows devices and applications to exchange messages/ communicate across
a Network
It is a fundamental part of the internet that is often used in conjunction with the Internet Protocol (IP) to form the
TCP/IP protocol suite.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a vital component of internet communication, ensuring that data is
transmitted reliably and accurately between devices. Its ability to manage data packet transmission, error
correction, and proper sequencing underpins the smooth and efficient exchange of information that we rely on every
day.
TCP is responsible for organizing and sorting data by breaking data into packets while IP is responsible for sending
and receiving.

TCP is the underlying protocol for many applications such as Web Browsing, Email, File and Data Transfer. Also for
P2P sharing. It’s an Internet based protocol.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the TCP/IP suite. It lies between the
Application and Network Layers which are used in providing reliable delivery services. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) ensures reliable and efficient data transmission over the internet. TCP plays a crucial role in
managing the flow of data between computers, guaranteeing that information is delivered accurately and in the
correct sequence.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that helps in the
exchange of messages between different devices over a network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the
technique for sending data packets between computers, works with TCP.
The position of TCP is at the transport layer of the OSI model. TCP also helps in ensuring that information is
transmitted accurately by establishing a virtual connection between the sender and receiver.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) model breaks down the data into small bundles and afterward reassembles the
bundles into the original message on the opposite end (recipient) to make sure that each message reaches its target
location intact. Sending the information in little bundles of information makes it simpler to maintain efficiency as
opposed to sending everything in one go.
After a particular message is broken down into bundles, these bundles may travel along multiple routes if one route
is jammed but the destination remains the same.

THE 3WAY HANDSHAKE IN TCP

For Example: When a user requests a web page on the internet, somewhere in the world, the server processes that
request and sends back an HTML Page to that user. The server makes use of a protocol called the HTTP Protocol.
The HTTP then requests the TCP layer to set the required connection and send the HTML file.
Now, the TCP breaks the data into small packets and forwards it toward the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. The packets
are then sent to the destination through different routes.

Applications of TCP
 World Wide Web (WWW) : When you browse websites, TCP ensures reliable data transfer between your
browser and web servers.
 Email : TCP is used for sending and receiving emails. Protocols like SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
handle email delivery across servers.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) : FTP relies on TCP to transfer large files securely. Whether you’re uploading or
downloading files, TCP ensures data integrity.
 Secure Shell (SSH) : SSH sessions, commonly used for remote administration, rely on TCP for encrypted
communication between client and server.
 Streaming Media : Services like Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify use TCP to stream videos and music. It ensures
smooth playback by managing data segments and retransmissions.

What Does TCP/IP Do?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main condition of this
process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by
the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data
into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end. The TCP/IP model is used in the context of the real-world internet, where a
wide range of physical media and network technologies are in use. Rather than specifying a particular Physical Layer,
the TCP/IP model allows for flexibility in adapting to different physical implementations.

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data
into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer
procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the
same way at the receiver’s end.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

 Application Laye - HTTP, HTTPS
 Transport Layer (TCP/UDP) - TCP, UDP ensuring that packets are sent accurately and intact
 Network/Internet Layer (IP) - Internet Protocol
 Network Access Layer – Ethernet

FEATURES of TCP/IP
Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol are mentioned below.
  Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or received by assigning
numbers to each and every single one of them. A specific Byte Number is assigned to data bytes that are to
be transferred while segments are assigned sequence numbers. Acknowledgment Numbers are assigned to
received segments.

 Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each other till the completion of the
process. The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains same before and after transmission.

 Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice – versa at the same time. It
increases efficiency of data flow between sender and receiver.

 Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is done to ensure reliable
delivery. The receiver continually hints to the sender on how much data can be received (using a sliding
window).

 Error Control: TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data transfer. Error control is byte-
oriented. Segments are checked for error detection. Error Control includes – Corrupted Segment & Lost
Segment Management, Out-of-order segments, Duplicate segments, etc.

 Congestion Control: TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network. Congestion level is
determined by the amount of data sent by a sender.

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core communication protocols of the Internet protocol suite used to
send messages (transported as datagrams in packets) to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Within
an IP network.

UDP does not require prior communication to set up communication channels or data paths i.e. no need for 3-Way
handshake as it is in TCP. It is a connectionless protocol meaning that messages are sent without negotiating a
connection and that UDP doesn't keep track of what it has sent.
 UDP provides checksums (error checking) for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different functions at
the source and destination of the datagram. It has no handshaking dialogues and thus exposes the user's program
to any unreliability of the underlying network; there is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection. If
error-correction facilities are needed at the network interface level, an application may instead use Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.

UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and correction are either not necessary or are performed in the
application; It avoids the overhead of such processing in the protocol stack. Time-sensitive applications often use
UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for packets delayed due to retransmission, which may not be
an option in a real-time system.

The protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768.

Attributes of User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a simple message-oriented transport layer protocol that is documented in RFC 768. Although UDP provides
integrity verification (via checksum) of the header and payload, it provides no guarantees to the upper layer
protocol for message delivery and the UDP layer retains no state of UDP messages once sent. For this reason, UDP
sometimes is referred to as Unreliable Datagram Protocol. If transmission reliability is desired, it must be
implemented in the user's application.
A number of UDP's attributes make it especially suited for certain applications.

 It is transaction-oriented, suitable for simple query-response protocols such as the Domain Name System or
the Network Time Protocol.

 It provides datagrams, suitable for modeling other protocols such as IP tunneling or remote procedure
call and the Network File System.

 It is simple, suitable for bootstrapping or other purposes without a full protocol stack, such as
the DHCP and Trivial File Transfer Protocol.

 It is stateless, suitable for very large numbers of clients, such as in streaming media applications like Netflix,
Showmax.

 The lack of retransmission delays makes it suitable for real-time applications such as Voice over IP, online
games, and many protocols using Real Time Streaming Protocol.
  Because it supports multicast, it is suitable for broadcast information such as in many kinds of service
discovery and shared information such as Precision Time Protocol and Routing Information Protocol.

Application of UDP
 Real-Time Multimedia Streaming: UDP is ideal for streaming audio and video content. Its low-latency nature
ensures smooth playback, even if occasional data loss occurs.
 Online Gaming: Many online games rely on UDP for fast communication between players.
 DNS (Domain Name System) Queries : When your device looks up domain names (like converting
“www.example.com” to an IP address), UDP handles these requests efficiently .
 Network Monitoring: Tools that monitor network performance often use UDP for lightweight, rapid data
exchange.
 Multicasting: UDP supports packet switching, making it suitable for multicasting scenarios where data needs
to be sent to multiple recipients simultaneously.
 Routing Update Protocol: Some routing protocols, like RIP (Routing Information Protocol), utilize UDP for
exchanging routing information among routers.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP) AND USER DAYAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) both are protocols of the Transport Layer
Protocols. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol whereas UDP is a part of the Internet Protocol suite, referred to as
the UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless protocol. In this article, we will discuss the
differences between TCP and UDP

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL

Differences between TCP and UDP

Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Type of Service TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. UDP is the Datagram-oriented

Connection orientation means that the protocol. This is because there is no
Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

overhead for opening a connection,

communicating devices should establish a maintaining a connection, or
connection before transmitting data and should terminating a connection. UDP is
close the connection after transmitting the data. efficient for broadcast and multicast
types of network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees the delivery of The delivery of data to the destination
Reliability
data to the destination router. cannot be guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error-

Error checking UDP has only the basic error-checking
checking mechanisms. It is because it provides
mechanism mechanism using checksums.
flow control and acknowledgment of data.

Acknowledgment An acknowledgment segment is present. No acknowledgment segment.

Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission There is no sequencing of data in UDP.

Sequence Control Protocol (TCP). this means that packets If the order is required, it has to be
arrive in order at the receiver. managed by the application layer.

UDP is faster, simpler, and more

Speed TCP is comparatively slower than UDP.
efficient than TCP.

There is no retransmission of lost

Retransmission of lost packets is possible in TCP,
Retransmission packets in the User Datagram Protocol
but not in UDP.
(UDP).

UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-length

Header Length TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable length header.
header.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Handshaking It’s a connectionless protocol i.e. No

Uses handshakes such as SYN, ACK, SYN-ACK
Techniques handshake

Broadcasting TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

TCP is used by HTTP, UDP is used by DNS , DHCP ,

Protocols
HTTPs , FTP , SMTP and Telnet . TFTP, SNMP , RIP , and VoIP .

Stream Type The TCP connection is a byte stream. UDP connection is a message stream.

Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.

This protocol is used in situations

This protocol is primarily utilized in situations where quick communication is
when a safe and trustworthy communication necessary but where dependability is
Applications
procedure is necessary, such as in email, on the not a concern, such as VoIP, game
web surfing, and in military services. streaming, video, and music
streaming, etc.

Example: Suppose there are two houses, H1 and H2, and a letter has to be sent from H1 to H2. But there is a river in
between those two houses. Now how can we send the letter?
Solution 1: Make a bridge over the river and then it can be delivered.
Solution 2: Get it delivered by a pigeon.
 Consider the first solution as TCP . A connection has to be made (bridge) to get the data (letter)
delivered. The data is reliable because it will directly reach another end without loss of data or error.
 The second solution is UDP . No connection is required for sending the data. The process is fast as compared
to TCP, where we need to set up a connection(bridge). But the data is not reliable: we don’t know whether
the pigeon will go in the right direction, will drop the letter on the way, or some issue is encountered mid-
travel.
Conclusion
To summarize, TCP and UDP are both important Transport Layer protocols with distinct properties and uses. TCP
offers dependable, orderly, and error-free data transmission, making it ideal for operations that require precision,
such as file transfers and web browsing. UDP, on the other hand, provides quicker, connectionless communication
that is excellent for real-time applications such as gaming and video streaming, when speed is critical and minor
data loss is acceptable. The exact requirements of the task at hand determine whether TCP or UDP should be used.

CHECKSUM
A checksum is a small-sized block of data derived from another block of digital data to detect errors that may have
been introduced during its transmission or storage1. It is used to verify data integrity but not data authenticity.

STATELESS
A stateless protocol is a type of communication that doesn’t depend on previous communications between
computers as it in UDP

SIMPLE DUPLEX
In simplex mode, Sender can send the data but the sender is unable receive the data. It’s a one way communication
in which communication happens in only one direction. Example of this kind of mode is Keyboard, Traditional
Monitors, etc.

HALF DUPLEX
In half-duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also receive the data one sequentially. It is a bidirectional
communication but limited to only one at a time. An example of this is the Walkie-Talkie, in which information is sent
one at a time but in bi-directions.

FULL DUPLEX
In Full-duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also can receive the data simultaneously. It is dual way
communication that is both way of communication happens at a same time. Example of this kind of transmission is
Telephone Network, where communication happens parallel.

 High-Speed Communication: Data transfer is quicker because there is no delaying for the channel to clear
before sending or receiving data.
 Reduced Latency: Since communication is parallel, time lag is minimized, which is critical for real-time
applications like web conferencing.
 Better Utilization of Bandwidth: The available transmission capacity is used more efficient because both
directions of communication can occur at once.

PORTS
Port (Number) is a logical address that is allotted to every application on the computer that uses the internet to send
or receive data.

Whenever any application in one computer sends data to another application of a different computer then it sends
using IP Address and MAC Address but how does our computer know that this data is for a specific application and
this data is sent by any specific application? There comes the concept of Port.

For instance, imagine your MAC Address or IP Address as the PIN code of the nearest Post Office and your house
address as a Port. Whenever any parcel is sent to you it gets received by the nearest post office and then it is
identified by your address where to deliver that parcel. Similarly in a computer data is first received using their IP or
MAC address then it is delivered to the application whose port number is with the data packets.

Ports are assigned by computer i.e. operating system to different applications. Ports help computer to differentiate
between incoming and outgoing traffic. Since the port is a 16-bit unsigned number it ranges from 0 to 65535.

** some IP address comes with specified port number like 192.168.55.2.80 (the 80 is the port number) which
specifies the kind of data/message being sent across the network to the device which could be HTTP, FTP, IPP etc.

Ports are further divided into three categories:

 Well Known Port
 Registered port
 Dynamic Port

1. WELL KNOWN PORTS: Between 0 and 1023 (used by Operating System for Network Services)
These are port numbers between 0 and 1023. These Ports are used by Default Applications, Operating
Systems, Network Admins and Services. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages these
Ports.

i. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) uses Port 20 and 21

These Ports are used to transfer large block of data over TCP/IP Networks. Port 20 is used for Data flow
between Client and Server (over a Network) while Port 21 handles the control/command aspects.

ii. Secure Shell (SSH) uses Port 22

 This is used for Secured Remote Commands (access and execution), provides channel over an unsecured
network, offering encrypted communication between two or more devices. VPN connection is an example.

iii. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) uses Port 80

for unencrypted web communications. For non-secured connections.

iv. Post Office Protocol (POP 3) uses Port 110

Reserved for the retrieval of email allowing users to download their emails from a server to a local device
typically using an email Client.

v. Internet Access Message Protocol (IMAP) uses Port 143

This is an alternative to POP3 for retrieving emails. It allows a user to access and manipulate their email
messages on a server without downloading them to a local device.

vi. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) uses Port 443

This is the secure counterpart to HTTP but ensures secure communication over the internet, commonly
used for online Banking, Shopping and other sensitive transactions.

vii. TELNET uses Port 23 to remotely access a Network Device or Computer.Its an old protocol that is still
commonly used for remote access to a Command Line Interface but it communicates in clear/plain (no
encryption)

viii. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) uses Port25 as the default port for sending emails.

ix. Domain Name System (DNS) uses Port 53 - This is the system that translates human readable domain
names into IP addresses. A critical component of internet Infrastructure.

x. DHCP Server – Port 67

xi. DHCP Client – Port 68

xii. Internet Printing Protocol (IPP) uses Port 631

This is used to print to Printers located remotely on the Network.

xiii. Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) uses Port 3389

Port Transpor Application Protocol
Numbe t
r

20 TCP File Transfer Protocol

(FTP) - Data

21 TCP File Transfer Protocol

(FTP) - Control

22 TCP Secure Shell (SSH)

23 TCP Telnet

25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol (SMTP)

53 UDP, TCP Domain Name Service

(DNS)

67 UDP Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) – Server

68 UDP Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol -
Client

8 UDP Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol -
Client
69 UDP Trivial File Transfer
Protocol (TFTP)
80 TCP Hypertext Transfer
 Protocol (HTTP)
110 TCP Post Office Protocol
version 3 (POP3)
143 TCP Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP)
161 UDP Simple Network
Management Protocol
(SNMP)
443 TCP Hypertext Transfer
Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

2. REGISTERED PORT: between 1024 and 49151 (also known as user ports) (for Network users)
Used for specific application or protocol. Most of the Ports have an official usage though are less likely to be
used by average user’s devices.

3. DYNAMIC PORTS

SOURCE PORT
This identifies the kind of communication automatically generated by the sending device (Sender)
DESTINATION PORT
This determines the kind of service being requested.

SOCKETS (PAIRS)
The combination of the IP address and the Port number

MODULE 12
NETWORK APPLICATION SERVICES (APPLICATION LAYER SERVICES)
The use of internet services depends which includes Videos Streaming, Web Interactions, File Downs and Views etc.
requires Network Applications to make our connectivity and communication works.

Each of our services/interactions in a network requires some protocols from the TCP/IP suites to work and this forms
a reliable connectivity between the Client and the Server.

DNS (Domain Name System/Translation) SERVER.

DNS Resolves internet name to an IP address
A DNS server is a computer server that contains a database of public IP addresses and their
associated hostnames and, in most cases, serves to resolve or translate those names to IP addresses as requested.
DNS servers run special software and communicate with each other using special protocols.

The translation of a domain name into IP address for web interaction since computer algorithms executes only 0s
and 1s (Zeros and Ones). The Server stores and interact with the IP addresses in relations to the domain name. They
way store Phone numbers on our phones in relative to their respective numbers.
There is Non-Authoritative and Authoritative DNS Server.
** DNS uses port 53
** HTTP uses Port 80
** HTTPS uses Port 443
The DNS server sits in the space between humans and computers to help facilitate their communication.
It's much easier to remember a domain or hostname like lifewire.com than the site's IP address of 151.101.2.114. So
when you access a website like Lifewire, all you have to type is the URL https://www.lifewire.com.

However, computers and network devices don't work well with domain names when trying to locate each other on
the internet. Using an IP address, the numerical representation of the server on which the website resides on the
network (internet) is far more efficient and precise.

How DNS Servers Resolve a DNS Query

When you enter a website address into your browser's address bar, a DNS server finds the address you want to visit.
It sends a DNS query to several servers, each translating a different part of the domain name you entered. The
different servers queried are:
 A DNS Resolver: Receives the request to resolve the domain name with the IP address. This server does the
grunt work in figuring out where the site you want to go resides on the internet.
 A Root Server: The root server receives the first request and returns a result to let the DNS resolver know the
address of the Top-Level Domain (TLD) server that stores the information about the site. A top-level domain is
the equivalent of the .com or .net portion of the domain name you entered into the address bar.
 A TLD Server: The DNS resolver then queries this server, returning the Authoritative Name Server where the
site is returned.
 An Authoritative Name Server: Finally, the DNS resolver queries this server to learn the actual IP address of
the website you're trying to deliver.
Once the IP address is returned, the website you requested is displayed in your web browser.
It sounds like a lot of back and forth, and it is, but it all happens very quickly with little delay in getting you to the site
you want to visit.

The process described above happens the first time you visit a site. If you revisit the same site before the cache on
your web browser is cleared, there's no need to go through all these steps. Instead, the web browser will pull the
information from the cache. This translates to faster web browsing. Because of this, clearing the browser cache can
temporarily increase the time it takes to access your favorite websites, although this is usually too minor of a
difference to notice.

The recursive DNS server is responsible for handling DNS queries on behalf of the user and tries to resolve the domain
name.

** Non-Authoritative DNS Server - The usually visited sites is stored inn relative to the IP address as Non-
Authoritative
** Authoritative DNS Server - The newly visited sites is stored as Authoritative because the computer sees it as a
fresh demand
** Also know as name server

SSH (Secure Shell) SERVER

Provides secured remote access to servers and networking devices
SSH, or Secure Shell, constitutes a cryptographic network protocol designed to enable secure communication
between two systems over networks that may not be secure. This protocol is widely employed for remote access to
servers and the secure transmission of files between computers.

In essence, SSH acts as a secure conduit, establishing a confidential channel for communication in scenarios
where the network may pose security risks. This technology is instrumental for professionals seeking a reliable and
secure method of managing servers and transferring sensitive data across computers in a controlled and protected
manner.

SSH is a protocol for securely exchanging data between two computers over an untrusted network. SSH protects the
privacy and integrity of the transferred identities, data, and files. It runs in most computers and in practically every
server. It ships standard on UNIX, Linux, and macOS machines and it is used in over 90% of all data centers in the
world.
EMAIL SERVER
An email or mail server is a computer system with a mail transfer agent (MTA). Its main function is to send and
receive emails.
Email servers work pretty much like other kinds of servers. They are responsible for routing specific information, in
this case – emails, across a network like the internet.
Email servers rely on the IP addresses attached to emails and the DNS system to ensure that each message is routed
directly across the internet to the correct recipient, regardless of the domain.

Mail Server works in hand with the following servers:

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Sends email messages and attachments from Clients to Servers and from Server to other email servers
i.e. Sent Mail, go to Mail Client (Gmail, Yahoo Mail etc.) first , then the Mail Client will decide if the mail is for
local mailbox or server (from Gmail address to a Gmail address) or to another server (Gmail to Yahoo mail)
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is the most ubiquitous email transfer protocol. That is because it is the standard
protocol for any outgoing mail server.
When users make outgoing mail requests – i.e., hit send on an email – SMTP is the protocol that first handles the
request. On sending an email, the email client opens a connection with the relevant SMTP server.
The server then requests data from the client. That data includes:
 SMPT server name of the internet service provider
  Recipient’s email address
 Sender’s email address
 The content of the email
If the email addresses are from the same domain, the same SMTP server can route mail directly on the same
network to the recipient’s domain. Otherwise, the SMTP server uses the DNS to identify the correct IP address for the
recipient’s email domain.

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

In short, the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is the protocol that the incoming email servers use. It is a
protocol that manages and retrieves email messages. Therefore, it can only receive messages but not send emails.
Think back to the description of SMTP. This protocol delivers outgoing emails, via outgoing mail servers. It delivers
to incoming mail servers based on the domain of the recipient’s email address.
Once the email has found its way to the recipient’s server, it’s down to IMAP to retrieve emails and deliver them
from IMAP servers to the recipients’ inboxes.
In effect, when you log in to read your emails, IMAP retrieves your mail from your mail server and sends it to your
client.

Post Office Protocol (POP)

Another kind of mail server protocol concerned with arriving mail is POP – the Post Office Protocol. It fetches mail
from mail servers and brings it to clients. The most common version used is POP3, or the Post Office Protocol version
3.
It may sound like POP moves email around mail servers similarly to IMAP, but there is one big difference. POP
ensures that the email is deleted from outgoing mail servers once it has been delivered.
In effect, POP allows you to download emails from your mail server to a single computer. It then deletes the email on
the server. This is different from how IMAP works. It allows the mail server to sync with a number of different
computer devices and stores your emails on the IMAP servers.

HOW THE MAIL SERVER WORKS

1. The sender uses a computer to sign into their email account and write a message. As well as the message,
they must include the recipient’s email address before they hit send.
2. The email is first sent to SMTP or outgoing email servers. Here, the server does a DNS record check to
translate domain names in email addresses into IP addresses that servers can use to route the email.
3. If the email goes to a domain within the same network, the first server can simply route the email to the
correct IMAP server.
4. However, if the mail is addressed to a domain on an IMAP server in a different network, the initial SMTP
server will rely on unrelated SMTP servers to route the mail.
 5. Finally, the incoming mail server uses a protocol like IMAP or POP to send all messages to the recipient’s
computer. The recipient can then find the message in the inbox of their account.

An email server is a specialized computer system that

 Manages the sending, receiving, and storage of email messages.
 Ensures emails are delivered from the sender to the recipient.
 Captures bounced emails.
 Acts as an electronic post office for email within a network.
 Uses standardized protocols like SMTP, POP3, and IMAP.

MAIL CLIENT
While mail servers are the hardware responsible for sending and receiving emails, email clients are the software.
An email client is also notably not the same as mail server software. The latter processes incoming and outgoing mail
for many users in mail servers. And it allows a system administrator to manage accounts. On the other hand, an
email client simply sends, receives, and organizes mail for one specific user at a time.

Clients tend to work slightly differently when receiving emails, depending on which protocol is in use. If POP is at
work, the client downloads emails from the server to your local computer for you to access them. If SMTP or IMAP
are at work, the client synchronizes with the mail server to allow you to access your mail directly.
Ultimately, most email clients use SMTP to send emails.

As the user-facing aspect of emails that connect users to servers and allow them to access their important emails,
most folks on the internet tend to be familiar with email clients. If you’ve ever used Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, Apple
Mail, Mozilla Thunderbird, iOS Mail, Outlook or Yahoo Mail, then you are familiar with at least one email client.
DHCP SERVER (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
A DHCP Server is a network server that holds IP addresses and other information for Client connectivity and
automatically provides and assign the IP addresses, default gateways and other network parameters to client
devices. It relies on the standard protocol known as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol or DHCP to respond to
broadcast queries by clients.
A DHCP server automatically sends the required network parameters for clients to properly communicate on the
network. Without it, the network administrator has to manually set up every client that joins the network, which can
be cumbersome, especially in large networks. DHCP servers usually assign each client with a unique dynamic IP
address, which changes when the client’s lease for that IP address has expired.

WEB SERVER
A web server is a software application that runs on a hardware device that stores, processes, and serves web content
to users over the internet. It plays a critical role in the client-server model of the World Wide Web, where clients
(typically web browsers) request web pages and resources, and servers respond to these requests by delivering the
requested content.

Web servers operate on the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which is the foundation of data communication on
the World Wide Web. When you enter a website’s URL into your browser, it sends an HTTP request to the web server
hosting that website, which then sends back the web page you requested, allowing you to view it in your browser.

Working of Web Servers

A web server works in the following ways:
 Obtain the IP address from domain name: IP address is obtained in two ways either by searching it in the
cache or requesting DNS Servers
 Requests full URL from Browsers: After fetching IP address a full URL is demanded from web server
 Web Server Responds to the request: In accordance with the request a response is sent by the server in case
of successful request otherwise appropriate error message is sent
 The Web Page is displayed on the browser: After getting the response from the server, the web browser
displays the result
FTP SERVER (File Transfer Protocol)

File transfer protocol server (commonly known as FTP Server) is computer software that facilitates the secure
exchange of files over a TCP/IP network. It runs the file transfer protocol (FTP), a standard communication protocol
that operates at the network level, to establish a secure connection between the devices in a client-server
architecture and efficiently transmit data over the internet.

** FTP Servera provides an easy method to transfer files from one Computer to another
** FTP Servers uses 2 different Ports to communicate
Port 21 for connecting to server
Port 20 for sending files after establishing connections

FTP servers are the software solutions used for transferring files across the internet. They are primarily used for two
essential functions, “Put” and “Get.” It allows uploading (Put) files to the server from the client device and
downloading (Get) files from the server on the client device. FTP server helps to accommodate the following
functions.
o Exchange Large Size Files: Organizations usually struggle to share large files over email. Businesses dealing
with vast amounts of data often face interruptions during their file sharing process due to large files. The FTP
server allows organizations to share large files without hassles.
 o Enhance Security: The most significant purpose of employing FTP servers is to ensure a high level of security
while sending sensitive data across the network. FTP servers also support other types of secure file transfer
protocols such as SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) and FTP Secure (FTPS) to add another layer of security.
These protocols ensure effective end-to-end encryption to secure files while in transit.

o Optimize Workflows: FTP servers help enterprises streamline the file sharing process to overcome
productivity challenges. With the right software application in place, users can share large volumes of data
instead of sharing a single file at a time. Centrally storing files minimizes the time required to locate a file,
and scheduled transfers help avoid any delays or interruptions across workflows.

o Improve Control: FTP servers empower businesses to exercise greater control over their data by providing
smart access controls. Since every user requires different permissions to access various files, administrators
can easily determine who can edit, upload, download, or share files based on permissions.

o Reliable Disaster Recovery: An effective FTP server ensures organizational data and files aren’t compromised
or lost in the wake of a disaster. Continuous and automatic backup helps in proactively storing data at other
locations for easy restoration when needed.

TELEPHONY

Uses Peer-to-peer network

An internet telephony client uses peer-to-peer technology similar to that used by instant messaging. Protocol and
destination ports used by internet telephony applications can vary.
IP telephony makes use of Voice over IP (VoIP) technology, which converts analog voice signals into digital data.
Voice data is encapsulated into IP packets which carry the phone call through the network.

When the IP phone software has been installed, the user selects a unique name.
• A unique name allows calls to be received from other users.
• Calls are made to other users of the same service by selecting the username from a list.
A call to a regular telephone (landline or cell phone) requires using a gateway to access the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) and depending on the service, there may be charges associated with this type of call.
TEXT MESSAGING
• Enables users to communicate or chat over the
internet in real-time
• May also be called instant messages, direct
messages, private messages, and chat messages.
• Text messaging software is built into many
online applications, smart phone apps, and social
media sites.
Text messaging services on a computer are usually
accessed through a web-based client that is integrated into a social media or information sharing site.
There are also a number of standalone text message clients such as Cisco Webex Teams, Microsoft Teams,
WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and many others that support the transfer of documents, video, music, and audio
files.
TELNET

MODULE 13

HOME NETWORK BASICS

It is suitable and responsible to use wireless Router/deployment for connectivity at homes without the need to run
cables. Wireless Routers allows addition of Access Point (AP) for expansions when the ISP designated number of
users is exhausted.
It provides anytime and anywhere connectivity, easy to install, inexpensive and expandable.
Components of Home Devices:
 Game Consoles
 Smart TVs
 Security Cameras
  Printers, CCTVs.

ADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS CONNECTIVITY

1. Wireless technology enables networks to be easily expanded, without the limitations of cabled connections.
2. Provides anytime, anywhere connectivity.
3. Wireless technology is fairly easy and inexpensive to install. New and visiting users can join the network
quickly and easily.
4. Easy and inexpensive to install
5. New and visiting users can connect easily and fast.

The Home Network Router usually comes with connection ports:

1. The Ethernet Ports for connecting cabled home devices to the Router, also labelled “LAN”
2. The Internet Port for connecting the Router to the Internet Service Provider

**Home Network Routers could be wired, having ethernet (medium) or wireless.

** Wireless technology uses Electromagnetic spectrum (waves) to carry information between devices., each of the
spectrum has specific range of wave length and associated energies.
THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Wireless Technologies uses Electro Magnetic waves to carry data/information between devices.
This Spectrum includes Radio and Television Broadcast Bands, X-Ray, Gama Ray etc.
Each of the Spectrum has a specific bands and wavelengths

Wireless technologies including Bluetooth is between 2.4GHz and 5Ghz frequency ranges
ETHERNET CABLE CATEGORY
Ethernet cables are grouped into sequentially numbered categories ("cat") based on different specifications; sometimes the
category is updated with further clarification or testing standards (e.g. 5e, 6a). These categories are how we can easily know
what type of cable we need for a specific application. Manufacturers are required to adhere to the standards, which makes our
lives easier.
 Coaxial Cable
Ethernet Cable

IEEE is the organization responsible for the creation of the wireless technical standards.

WIRELESS SETTINGS
Network mode - Determines the type of technology that must be supported. For example, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n or Mixed
Mode.
Network Name (SSID) - Used to identify the WLAN. All devices that wish to participate in the WLAN must have the same SSID.

Standard Channel - Specifies the channel over which communication will occur. By default, this is set to Auto to allow the AP to
determine the optimum channel to use.

SSID Broadcast - Determines if the SSID will be broadcast to all devices within range. By default, set to Enabled.

WIRELESS CHANNEL
 Wireless Channels are created by dividing up the available RF spectrum. Each channel is capable of carrying a different
conversation.

 Multiple APs can function in close proximity as long as they use different channels for communication.

As the category number gets higher, so does the speed and Mhz of the wire. This is not a coincidence, because each category
brings more stringent testing for eliminating crosstalk (XT) and adding isolation between the wires.

Shielded (STP) vs. Unshielded (UTP)

Because all Ethernet cables are twisted, manufactures use shielding to further protect the cable from interference. Unshielded
twisted pair can easily be used for cables between your computer and the wall, but you will want to use shielded cable for areas
with high interference and running cables outdoors or inside walls

There are different ways to shield an Ethernet cable, but typically it involves putting a shield around each pair of wire in the
cable. This protects the pairs from crosstalk internally. Manufactures can further protect cables from alien crosstalk but
screening UTP or STP cables. Technically the picture above shows a Screened STP cable (S/STP).
ACCESS POINTS
Controls the flow of “traffic” of communicating devices in a network and act as the expandable protocol when number of users
on home wireless router is exhausted.

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

CSMA/CD
Standard channel in wireless network settings
SSID BROADCAST
RTS/CTS PROTOCOL

CHAPTER 14

CONNECTION TO THE INETRNET

ISP (Internet Service Provider) Connectivity Options

• An Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides the link between the home network and the internet.
• An ISP can be the local cable provider, a landline telephone service provider, the cellular network, or an independent
provider who leases bandwidth on the physical network infrastructure of another company.

• An ISP may offer additional services to their customers, such as email accounts, network storage, website hosting, and
automated backup or security services.
• ISPs are critical to communications across the global internet. Each ISP connects to other ISPs to form a network of links
that interconnect users all over the world.
CONNECTIVITY OPTIONS
1. Cable – This is often deployed by Cable Television service provides who also provides Internet Services, make
use of Coaxial Cables to connect to the end device from the receiving device (Antennas etc.) A special modem is
deployed to separate the Internet signal from the other signals carried on the cable.

2. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) – This ISP connectivity runs over Telephone lines to provide high bandwidth
capacity transmission which is always on connection to the internet. This line is splinted into 3 parts for
different operations over the internet (Voice, File Uploading and File Downloading)

3. Cellular - Cellular internet access uses a cell phone network to connect. Performance will be limited by the
capabilities of the phone and the cell tower to which it is connected.

4. Satellite - Satellite service is a good option for homes or offices that do not have access to DSL or cable.
Satellite dishes (see figure) require a clear line of sight to the satellite and so might be difficult in heavily
 wooded areas or places with other overhead obstructions. For example Starlink Satellite Internet service uses
Dish for connection

5. Dial-up Telephone - An inexpensive option that uses any phone line and a modem. To connect to the ISP, a user
calls the ISP access phone number. The low bandwidth provided by a dial-up modem connection is usually not
sufficient for large data transfer.

Internet Service Providers (ISPs) also interconnect to form the backbone of the internet as we have it today.

CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing refers to the on-demand availability of computing resources, such as data storage, servers, networking
capabilities, and software, over the internet. This model allows users to access and utilize these resources without the need for
direct active management or ownership of the physical infrastructure.

This entails storing and accessing the data and programs on remote servers that are hosted on the internet instead of the
computer’s hard drive or local server. Cloud computing is also referred to as Internet-based computing, it is a technology where
the resource is provided as a service through the Internet to the user. The data that is stored can be files, images, documents,
or any other storable document.

• Cloud computing is one of the ways that we access and store data.
• Cloud computing allows us to store personal files, even backup an entire drive on servers over the internet.
• Applications such as word processing and photo editing can be accessed using the cloud.
• Cloud computing is possible because of data centers.
Data centers house servers, storage devices, and other network infrastructure equipment

 Infrastructure: Cloud computing depends on remote network servers hosted on internet to store, manage, and process
the data.
 On-Demand Access: Users can access cloud services and resources based on-demand they can scale up or down the
without having to invest for physical hardware.
 Types of Services: Cloud computing offers various benefits such as cost saving, scalability, reliability and accessibility it
reduces capital expenditures, improves efficiency.

CLOUD COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE

1. Front End (User Interaction Enhancement) (The Thin Client, The Fat Client)
The User Interface of Cloud Computing consists of 2 sections of clients. The Thin clients are the ones that use web browsers
facilitating portable and lightweight accessibilities and others are known as Fat Clients that use many functionalities for
offering a strong user experience.
2. Back-end Platforms (Cloud Computing Engine) (Servers, Storage)
The core of cloud computing is made at back-end platforms with several servers for storage and processing computing.
Management of Applications logic is managed through servers and effective data handling is provided by storage. The
combination of these platforms at the backend offers the processing power, and capacity to manage and store data behind the
cloud.
3. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network
On-demand access to the computer and resources is provided over the Internet, Intranet, and Intercloud. The Internet comes
with global accessibility, the Intranet helps in internal communications of the services within the organization and
the Intercloud enables interoperability across various cloud services. This dynamic network connectivity ensures an essential
component of cloud computing architecture on guaranteeing easy access and data transfer.

TYPES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

1. Public Clouds (Public Deployment Model)
Applications and services offered in a public cloud are available to the general population. Services may be free or are
offered on a pay-per-use model.
It comes with offering a pay-as-you-go principle for scalability and accessibility of cloud resources for numerous users.
it ensures cost-effectiveness by providing enterprise-needed services.

2. Private Clouds (Private Deployment Model)

 Applications and services offered in a private cloud are intended for a specific organization or entity, such as the
government. It provides an enhancement in protection and customization by cloud resource utilization as per particular
specified requirements. It is perfect for companies which looking for security and compliance needs.

3. Hybrid Clouds (Hybrid Deployment Model

A hybrid cloud is made up of two or more clouds (example: part private, part public), where each part remains a
separate object, but both are connected using a single architecture.
It comes up with a combination of elements of both private and public clouds providing seamless data and application
processing in between environments. It offers flexibility in optimizing resources such as sensitive data in private clouds
and important scalable applications in the public cloud.

4. Community clouds - A community cloud is created for exclusive use by a specific community. The functional needs have
been customized for the community. For example, healthcare organizations.
It provides an enhancement in protection and customization by cloud resource utilization as per particular specified
requirements. It is perfect for companies which looking for security and compliance needs.

CLOUD SERVICES
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
 Flexibility and Control: IaaS comes up with providing virtualized computing resources such as VMs, Storage, and
networks facilitating users with control over the Operating system and applications.
 Reducing Expenses of Hardware: IaaS provides business cost savings with the elimination of physical infrastructure
investments making it cost-effective.
 Scalability of Resources: The cloud provides in scaling of hardware resources up or down as per demand facilitating
optimal performance with cost efficiency.

2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

 Simplifying the Development: Platform as a Service offers application development by keeping the underlying
Infrastructure as an Abstraction. It helps the developers to completely focus on application logic (Code) and background
operations are completely managed by the AWS platform.
 Enhancing Efficiency and Productivity: PaaS lowers the Management of Infrastructure complexity, speeding up the
Execution time and bringing the updates quickly to market by streamlining the development process.
 Automation of Scaling: Management of resource scaling, guaranteeing the program’s workload efficiency is ensured
by PaaS.

3. SaaS (software as a service)

 Collaboration And Accessibility: Software as a Service (SaaS) helps users to easily access applications without having
the requirement of local installations. It is fully managed by the AWS Software working as a service over the internet
encouraging effortless cooperation and ease of access.
  Automation of Updates: SaaS providers manage the handling of software maintenance with automatic latest updates
ensuring users gain experience with the latest features and security patches.
 Cost Efficiency: SaaS acts as a cost-effective solution by reducing the overhead of IT support by eliminating the need for
individual software license.

4. Function as a Service (FaaS)

 Event-Driven Execution: FaaS helps in the maintenance of servers and infrastructure making users worry about it. FaaS
facilitates the developers to run code as a response to the events.
 Cost Efficiency: FaaS facilitates cost efficiency by coming up with the principle “Pay as per you Run” for the computing
resources used.
 Scalability and Agility: Serverless Architectures scale effortlessly in handing the workloads promoting agility in
development and deployment.

CHARACTERISTICS AND ADVANTAGES OF CLOUD COMPUTIING

1. Scalability: With Cloud hosting, it is easy to grow and shrink the number and size of servers based on the need. This is
done by either increasing or decreasing the resources in the cloud. This ability to alter plans due to fluctuations in
business size and needs is a superb benefit of cloud computing, especially when experiencing a sudden growth in
demand.

2. Save Money: An advantage of cloud computing is the reduction in hardware costs. Instead of purchasing in-house
equipment, hardware needs are left to the vendor. For companies that are growing rapidly, new hardware can be
large, expensive, and inconvenient. Cloud computing alleviates these issues because resources can be acquired quickly
and easily. Even better, the cost of repairing or replacing equipment is passed to the vendors. Along with purchase
 costs, off-site hardware cuts internal power costs and saves space. Large data centers can take up precious office space
and produce a large amount of heat. Moving to cloud applications or storage can help maximize space and significantly
cut energy expenditures.

3. Reliability: Rather than being hosted on one single instance of a physical server, hosting is delivered on a virtual
partition that draws its resource, such as disk space, from an extensive network of underlying physical servers. If one
server goes offline it will have no effect on availability, as the virtual servers will continue to pull resources from the
remaining network of servers.

4. Physical Security: The underlying physical servers are still housed within data centers and so benefit from the security
measures that those facilities implement to prevent people from accessing or disrupting them on-site.

5. Outsource Management: When you are managing the business, Someone else manages your computing
infrastructure. You do not need to worry about management as well as degradation.

6. Reduces cost: The cost-cutting ability of businesses that utilize cloud computing over time is one of the main
advantages of this technology. On average 15% of the total cost can be saved by companies if they migrate to the
cloud. By the use of cloud servers businesses will save and reduce costs with no need to employ a staff of technical
support personnel to address server issues. There are many great business modules regarding the cost-cutting benefits
of cloud servers such as the Coca-Cola and Pinterest case studies.

7. More storage: For software and applications to execute as quickly and efficiently as possible, it provides more servers,
storage space, and computing power. Many tools are available for cloud storage such as Dropbox, Onedrive, Google
Drive, iCloud Drive, etc.

8. Employees Better Work Life Balance: Direct connections between cloud computing benefits, and the work and
personal lives of an enterprise’s workers can both improve because of cloud computing. Even on holidays, the
employees have to work with the server for its security, maintenance, and proper functionality. But with cloud storage
the thing is not the same, employees get ample of time for their personal life and the workload is even less
comparatively.

9. Automatic Maintenance and Updates: AWS Cloud takes care of the infrastructure management and keeping with the
latest software automatically making updates they is new versions. Through this, AWS guarantee the companies
always having access to the newest technologies to focus completely on business operations and innovation.

10. Collaboration and Accessibility: Cloud computing provides easy access to data and applications from anywhere over
the internet. This encourages collaborative team participation from different locations through shared documents and
projects in real-time resulting in quality and productive outputs.
.
DISADVANTAGES OF CLOUD COMPTING
 1. Security Concerns: Storing of sensitive data on external servers raised more security concerns which is one of the main
drawbacks of cloud computing.

2. Downtime and Reliability: Even though cloud services are usually dependable, they may also have unexpected
interruptions and downtimes. These might be raised because of server problems, Network issues or maintenance
disruptions in Cloud providers which negative effect on business operations, creating issues for users accessing their
apps.

3. Dependency on Internet Connectivity: Cloud computing services heavily rely on Internet connectivity. For accessing the
cloud resources the users should have a stable and high-speed internet connection for accessing and using cloud
resources. In regions with limited internet connectivity, users may face challenges in accessing their data and
applications.

4. Cost Management Complexity: The main benefit of cloud services is their pricing model that coming with Pay as you
go but it also leads to cost management complexities. On without proper careful monitoring and utilization of
resources optimization, Organizations may end up with unexpected costs as per their use scale. Understanding and
Controlled usage of cloud services requires ongoing attention.

CLOUD ARCHITECTURE SECURITY

Cloud security recommended to measures and practices designed to protect data, applications, and infrastructure in cloud
computing environments. The following are some of the best practices of cloud security:

 Data Encryption: Encryption is essential for securing data stored in the cloud. It ensures that data remains unreadable
to unauthorized users even if it is intercepted.

 Access Control: Implementing strict access controls and authentication mechanisms helps ensure that only authorized
users can access sensitive data and resources in the cloud.

 Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): MFA adds an extra layer of security by requiring users to provide multiple forms of
verification, such as passwords, biometrics, or security tokens, before gaining access to cloud services.

TOP LEADING CLOUD COMPUTING SERVICE PROVIDERS

1. Amazon Web Services(AWS)

One of the most successful cloud-based businesses is Amazon Web Services(AWS), which is an Infrastructure as a Service(Iaas)
offering that pays rent for virtual computers on Amazon’s infrastructure.

2. Microsoft Azure Cloud Platform

Microsoft is creating the Azure platform which enables the .NET Framework Application to run over the internet as an
alternative platform for Microsoft developers. This is the classic Platform as a Service(PaaS).

3. Google Cloud Platform ( GCP )

 Google has built a worldwide network of data centers to service its search engine. From this service, Google has
captured the world’s advertising revenue. By using that revenue, Google offers free software to users based on
infrastructure. This is called Software as a Service (SaaS).

VIRTUALISATION
Virtualization is a technology that allows for the creation of multiple simulated environments or dedicated resources from a
single, physical hardware system. It uses software to create an abstraction layer over computer hardware, enabling the division
of a single computer's hardware components—such as processors, memory, and storage—into multiple virtual machines
(VMs). Each VM runs its own operating system (OS) and behaves like an independent computer, even though it is running on
just a portion of the actual underlying computer hardware.

Virtualization makes Cloud computing realistic over the internet, Oracle Virtual Box, Linux
Having Window OS and kali Linux in one machine (Computer) is made possible by Virtualization

Virtualization allows sharing of a single physical instance of a resource or an application among multiple customers and
organizations at one time. It does this by assigning a logical name to physical storage and providing a pointer to that physical
resource on demand.

Network Virtualization
• Virtualization separates the operating system (OS) from the hardware.
• Server virtualization takes advantage of idle resources and consolidates the number of required servers. It allows for
multiple operating systems to exist on a single hardware platform.
• Network virtualization combines traditional networking hardware and software network resources into a software-
based entity, a virtual network.
• Network virtualization combines traditional networking hardware and software network resources into a software-
based entity, which is a virtual network.

HYPERVISORS