Chapter 12 - Sound

Introduction
You have learnt that sound is a form of energy. It is produced by vibrations. Sound waves are
longitudinal waves. They are also elastic waves hence they need a material medium for their
transmission. They cannot be transmitted in vacuum. They travel in solids, liquids and gases.
Their velocity is maximum in solids and least in gases.
We hear various kinds of sound in our daily life, pleasant sounds called the musical sounds,
unpleasant sound called the noise, loud sound, high pitched sound etc.
In this chapter let us study the difference between pleasant and unpleasant sound and the factors
on which the loudness, pitch etc depend upon.

Sound as a Wave
A ringing bell, a thunderclap, laughter, and rock music are sounds that seem very different to us.
However, all sounds are alike because they are waves. Let us understand how wave properties
can be applied to sound.
Sound is the form of energy propagated as waves which our ears receive. When we speak, our
vocal cords vibrate. When we play a guitar, the spring on it makes to and fro motion and
produces sound. A tuning fork also produces sound due to its vibrations. So, a body produces
sound by virtue of its vibrations. Sound waves cannot travel through vacuum, i.e., they need a
material medium to travel.
You can hear because, when sound waves reach your ears, the waves make your eardrums
vibrate. Nerves then send to your brain the messages about the vibrations. The brain interprets
the messages as sound.

Propagation of Sound
Propagation of sound waves in air from a tuning fork
A wave motion, in which the particles of the medium oscillate about their mean positions in the
direction of propagation of the wave, is called longitudinal wave.
Sound waves are classified as longitudinal waves. Let us now see how sound waves propagate.
Take a tuning fork, vibrate it and concentrate on the motion of one of its prongs, say prong A.
The normal position of the tuning fork and the initial condition of air particles is shown in the fig
(a). As the prong A moves towards right, it compresses air particles near it, forming a
compression as shown in fig (b). Due to vibrating air layers, this compression moves forward as
a disturbance. As the prong A moves back to its original position, the pressure on its right
decreases, thereby forming a rarefaction. This rarefaction moves forward like compression as a
disturbance. As the tuning fork goes on vibrating, waves consisting of alternated compressions
and rarefactions spread in air as shown in fig (d). The direction of motion of the sound waves is
same as that of air particles; hence they are classified as longitudinal waves. The longitudinal
waves travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

Sound Needs a Medium to Travel

The origin of sound is always some vibrating body. In some cases the vibrations of the source
may be very small or very large that it may not be possible to detect them. This type of vibrations
is produced by tuning fork, drum, bell, the string of a guitar etc. Human voice originates from the
vibrations of the vocal chords and the sound from the musical instruments is due to the vibrations
of the air columns. Sound travels in the form of longitudinal wave and it requires a material
medium for its propagation.
Experiment to show that sound waves (mechanical waves) require a material medium for
its propagation

Electric bell suspended inside an airtight glass bell jar

An electric bell is suspended inside an airtight glass bell jar connected to a vacuum pump. As the
electric bell circuit is completed, the sound is heard. Now if the air is slowly removed from the
bell jar by using a vacuum pump, the intensity of sound goes on decreasing and finally no sound
is heard when all the air is drawn out. We would be seeing the hammer striking the gong
repeatedly. This clearly proves that sound requires a material for its propagation.
Sound can propagate not only through gases but also through solids and liquids. Some materials
like air, water, iron etc can easily transmit sound energy from one place to another. On the other
hand materials like blanket and thick curtains absorb most of the sound energy.

Basic Terms Connected to Waves

The four important terms used in the study of waves are Wavelength, Amplitude, Frequency and
Wave velocity.
Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive points on the wave which are in the same
phase. (Same phase means same state of vibrations)
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position.
Frequency is the number of periodic oscillations completed in one second. The frequency f = 1/T
where 'T' is the time taken to complete one oscillation. The unit of this measure is hertz [Hz].
Wave velocity 'v' is the velocity with which the energy is propagated in a medium.

Sound wave
 As wavelength is the distance covered during one oscillation and frequency is the number of
oscillations per second, the product of the wavelength and frequency would give us the wave
velocity.
Distance travelled in 1 s = number of waves in one second x wave length
Wave velocity = Frequency × Wavelength
or, v = f (x)

Speed of Sound
The flash of lightning due to collision of clouds is seen much before the thunder, although both
occur simultaneously. This happens because the velocity of light is greater than the velocity of
sound. The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels.
The medium can vary in (1) elasticity (2) density (3) pressure and (4) temperature. The speed of
sound decreases as it moves from solid to gaseous state. But in any medium the speed of sound
increases with increase in temperature. The speed of sound at a particular temperature in various
media is listed in the table.
Speed of sound in different media at 250C
State Substance Speed in m/s
Solids Aluminium 6420
Nickel 6040
Steel 5960
Iron 5950
Brass 4700
Glass(Flint) 3980
Liquid Water (Sea) 1531
Water(distilled) 1498
Ethanol 1207
Methanol 1103
Gases Hydrogen 1284
Helium 965
Air 346
Oxygen 316
Sulphur dioxide 213

Reflection of Sound
When sound is incident on a solid or a liquid surfaceit bounces off the surface like light rays.
Sound waves also obey the laws of reflection and refraction. For sound waves to reflect, we need
extended surface or obstacle of large size. For example, the rolling of thunder is due to
successive reflections from clouds and land surfaces.
According to the law of reflection of sound the directions in which the sound is incident and
reflected make equal angles with the normal to the reflecting surface and the three lie in the same
plane.
Echoes
Like all waves, sound waves can be reflected. Sound waves suffer reflection from the large
obstacles. As a result of reflection of sound wave from a large obstacle, the sound is heard which
is named as an echo. Ordinarily echo is not heard as the reflected sound gets merged with the
original sound. Certain conditions have to be satisfied to hear an echo distinctly (as a separate
sound). The sensation of any sound persists in our ear for about 0.1 seconds. This is known as
the persistence of hearing. If the echo is heard within this time interval, the original sound and its
echo cannot be distinguished. So the most important condition for hearing an echo is that the
reflected sound should reach the ear only after a lapse of at least 0.1 second after the original
sound dies off. As the speed of sound is 340 m/s, the distance travelled by sound in 0.1 second is
34 m. This is twice the minimum distance between a source of sound and the reflector. So, if the
obstacle is at a distance of 17 m at least, the reflected sound or the echo is heard after 0.1 second,
distinctly.
Further, for reflection of any wave to take place, the size of the reflector should be large
compared to the wavelength of the sound, which for ordinary sound is of the order of 1 metre. A
large building, a mountain side, large rock formation etc. are good reflectors of sound for
producing an echo. Also, for the reflected sound to be heard, it must have enough intensity or
loudness. Moreover, if the echo is to be distinguished from the original sound the two should not
mix or overlap. For this, the original sound should be of very short duration, like a clap or shout.
So, following conditions could be listed for formation of echo:
• The size of the obstacle/reflector must be large compared to the wavelength of the incident
sound (for reflection of sound to take place).
• The distance between the source of sound and the reflector should be at least 17 m (so that
the echo is heard distinctly after the original sound is over).
• The intensity or loudness of the sound should be sufficient for the reflected sound reaching
the ear to be audible. The original sound should be of short duration.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Echoes

• Echoes can be useful or a nuisance. In a concert hall, echoes can ruin a performance if the
walls and ceiling are not properly designed. If the walls are too hard, or too flat, they make
good reflecting surfaces for the sound waves.
• Echoes can be used to give vital information. A sonar (Sonar stands for sound navigation
ranging) device sends out high frequency sound waves from a ship to find out how close the
vessel is to the sea bed. An ultrasound scanner, particularly known for giving images of the
unborn baby, works in roughly the same way.
• Bats use echoes to navigate as they fly in the night. This works on the same principle as
sonar and ultrasound scanner. The bat sends out tiny, high pitched squeaks, which bounce off
the objects in the bat's flight path. The echoes reach the bat, which then adjusts its course to
avoid the obstacles. Many bats have very large ears to catch as much of the reflected sound
as possible.
• When animals such as bats and dolphins use echoes, it is called echo location. They use it to
find their way around or to locate prey. Echo location describes the way of how some
animals detect the size and position of objects around them.

• At night, bats use echolocation to guide them in flight. They send out tiny 'clicks', which
bounce off objects and return to the bat. It builds up a 'sound' picture of its surroundings.

Reverberation
Due to reflection of light a sound created in a big hall will persist until it is reduced to a value
where it is no longer audible.
This persistence of audible sound due to the successive reflections from the surrounding objects
even after the source has stopped to produce that sound is called reverberation.
There should not be excessive reverberation. To reduce reverberation, the roof and walls of the
auditorium are generally covered with sound- absorbent materials like compressed fibre -board,
rough plaster or draperies.

Practical Applications of Reflection of Sound

Some applications of the principle of reflection of sound are:
• Megaphone
• Hearing Board
• Sound Boards
Megaphone: Megaphone is a horn-shaped tube. The sound waves are prevented from spreading
out by successive reflections and are confined to the air in the tube.
Hearing aid: It is a device used by the people who are hard of hearing. Here the sound waves,
which are received by the hearing aid are reflected into a narrower area leading to the ear.
Sound Boards: Curved surfaces can reflect sound waves. This reflection of sound waves is used
in auditorium to spread the waves uniformly throughout the hall. Reflection of sound waves is
done by using Sound Boards. The speaker is located at the focus of the sound board.

Musical Sound and Noise

A musical sound can be defined as a pleasant continuous and uniform sound produced by regular
and periodic vibrations.
Example: The pleasant sound produced by a guitar, piano, tuning fork etc.
Noise can be defined as an irregular succession of disturbances, which are discordant and
unpleasant to the ear.
Bats and dolphins can detect the presence of an obstacle by hearing the echo of the sound
produced by them. This process is called sound ranging.

Range of Hearing
Sound waves are emitted from a vibrating source and transmitted through air. The human ear can
hear sound waves in the range 20 Hz and 20 KHz. This range is known as audible range. The
sound waves having frequencies above the audible range are known as ultrasonic waves and it is
usually referred as ultrasound. The sound waves having frequencies less than the audible range
are called infrasonic waves.

Applications of Ultrasound
• It is used for medical diagnosis and therapy and also as a surgical tool.
• Bats and porpoises use ultrasound for navigation and to locate food in darkness.
• It is used to detect defective foetus.
• It is used as a tool in the treatment of muscular pain.
• Ultra sonography (is a technique of 3-dimensional photographs with the help of ultrasonic
waves) is used to locate the exact position of an eye tumour.
• Ultrasound is generally used to clean spiral tubes,electronic components etc.
• Ultrasound are used to detect cracks and flaws in metal blocks.

SONAR
One of the most important applications of the reflection of sound is oceanographic studies. For
this purpose, we use a system called the SONAR. The SONAR is abbreviated form of Sound
Navigation and Ranging. The SONAR system is used for detecting the presence of unseen under
water object, such as submerged submarine, a sunken ship, iceberg and locating them. In Sonar
ultrasonic waves are sent in all directions from the ship and are then received on their return after
reflection.

Determination of the depth of an ocean

The depth of an ocean is determined with the help of SONAR.
Sonar uses ultrasonic waves to detect and locate objects under water.
Ultrasonic waves produced from the transmitter kept in a ship are directed towards the ocean
floor.
The ocean floor reflects these waves.
By measuring the time interval t between the generation of the wave and reception of the echo,
we calculate the depth of the ocean by using the relation
v ×t
S= Where v is the velocity of ultrasonic waves.
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Echolocation
• Echolocation is a method of sensory perception by which certain animals orient themselves
to their surroundings, detect obstacles, communicate with others and find food.
• Bats use echolocation to navigate in the dark and find food.
• A bat emits a series of short high-pitched ultrasonic waves from its mouth or nose.
• These sound waves travel away from the animal.
• Then they bounce off the objects in the animal's path creating an echo.
• A bat can determine the size and shape of the obstacle in their path, the direction of motion
of the prey and also the direction of motion.
• This echolocation system is so accurate that bats can detect insects, the size of gnats and
objects as fine as a human hair.
• Like bats, dolphins also emit high-frequency sound waves and are able to detect obstacles in
their path.
• Thus dolphins can avoid fishing nets and also detect fish at night or even in muddy water
through which it is not possible to see.

Structure of Human Ear

Ears are extremely sensitive device with the help of which we are able to hear.
The ear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each part of
the ear has a specific role in the task of detecting and interpreting sound. The outer ear is called
pinna. It collects and transmits the sound to the middle ear through the auditory canal.

At the end of the auditory canal there is a thin membrane called the eardrum or tympanic
membrane. The eardrum moves inward and outward as the compression or rarefaction reaches it.
In this way the eardrum vibrates. These vibrations are amplified by the three bones namely the
hammer, anvil and stirrup in the middle ear.
The middle ear transmits these vibrations to the inner ear. Inside the inner ear, the vibrations or
the pressure variations are converted into electrical signals by the cochlea. These electrical
signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve and the brain interprets them as sound.