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FM Manual ( Sp 2025)

The document outlines the Fluid Mechanics Lab course for the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National University of Technology for Spring 2025, detailing course learning outcomes, grading policies, and assessment criteria. It includes a comprehensive list of practical experiments designed to teach students about fluid flow systems, fluid machinery, and related concepts. Each practical session is described with objectives, apparatus, and activity timelines, emphasizing hands-on learning and safety procedures.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

3 views

FM Manual ( Sp 2025)

Uploaded by

ZARRAR

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (NUTECH)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fluid Mechanics Lab

(ME-2106)

Session Spring 2025

NAME ___________________________________
REG NO ___________________________________
SECTION ___________________________________
INSTR ___________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Contents

Mechanical Engineering Department Fluid Mechanics Lab

1|Page

Course Learning Outcomes........................................................................................................................................2

Grading Policy.............................................................................................................................................................2
Assessment...................................................................................................................................................................3
Practical 1..................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction to Lab Equipment and Lab Layout........................................................................................................5
Practical 2...................................................................................................................................................................13
Demonstration of Bernoulli’s Theorem...................................................................................................................13
Practical 3...................................................................................................................................................................19
Determination of the metacentric height...............................................................................................................19
Practical 4...................................................................................................................................................................24
Impact of Jet............................................................................................................................................................24
Practical 5...................................................................................................................................................................29
Visual analysis of flow............................................................................................................................................29
Practical 6...................................................................................................................................................................36
Velocity of flow......................................................................................................................................................36
Practical 7...................................................................................................................................................................42
Energy Losses in Pipes............................................................................................................................................42
Practical 8...................................................................................................................................................................48
Rectangular weir in a thin wall................................................................................................................................48
Practical 9...................................................................................................................................................................52
V-shape weir in a thin wall......................................................................................................................................52
Practical 10.................................................................................................................................................................56
Hydrostatic pressure on immersed surface..............................................................................................................56
Practical 11.................................................................................................................................................................62
Measurement of Lift and Drag Force in Aerodynamic Tunnel................................................................................62
Practical 12.................................................................................................................................................................67
Investigating the Effects of Connecting Pumps in Series and Parallel........................................................................67
Practical 13.................................................................................................................................................................72
Operation characteristics of a Pelton Wheel turbine................................................................................................72
Practical 14.................................................................................................................................................................78
To Calculate the Speed, Torque and efficiency of Francis Turbine.........................................................................78
Practical 15.................................................................................................................................................................83
Open Ended Lab......................................................................................................................................................83

Mechanical Engineering Department Fluid Mechanics Lab

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Course Learning Outcomes

S. No Taxonomy PLOs
CLO Domain PLO ECs SDGs
Level (WK)

Perform experimentation to verify

Psychom
fluid flow systems, fluid machinery,
1 otor 3 4 WK-8 EC-3 SDG-9
as well as to find fluid forces and
losses.

Demonstrate knowledge of
apparatus while working individually
2 or in a team. Affective 3 8 WK-9 EC-4 SDG-16

Grading Policy
Type of exam Percentage

Rubric based assessment of Lab Reports. 60% marks will be for initial lab
report submitted during the conduct of lab and 40 % marks will be for final lab 25
report.

Rubric based Assessment in Psychomotor domain 15

Open Ended Labs 10

Mid Term Exam/Viva 20

End semester Exam/Viva 30

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Assessment

AFFECTIVE (To be judged in the lab during experiment)

Levels of Achievement

Unacceptable Just acceptable Basic Good Excellent

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

I. Follows Completely
Totally Casual in Follows
Adherence adequate adheres to
ignores safety following safety desired safety
to Safety safety safety
procedures procedures procedures
Procedures procedures procedures

II.
Managemen Poor
Manages work Manages Manages Manages
t of Work management
area to some work area work area work area
Area & of work area
extent adequately effectively proficiently
equipment
Care

III. Demonstrates
Demonstrates
Participatio Shows some commitment , Active
commitment
n& Shows no commitment but but has participation
and also
Contributio commitment fails to perform difficulty and effective
carries out
n towards assigned roles performing contribution
assigned roles
Group Goals assigned roles

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b) PSYCHOMOTOR (To be judged in the lab during experiment)

Levels of Achievement

Just
Unacceptable Basic Good Excellent
acceptable
(1) (3) (4) (5)
(2)

Unable to Learn skills Learns

Learns desired Masters and
I. learn and and applies adequate
skills and applies desired
Procedural apply under skills and
applies with skills with ease
Skills appropriate repeated applies under
confidence and confidence
skills guidance guidance

Uses
Uses Masters use of
II. equipment Uses
equipment equipment
Proficiency Unable to use with equipment
with minimal proficiently with
in Use of the equipment adequate skillfully and
level of skills precision
Equipment skills and accurately
and accuracy
accuracy

Distinguishes
Is able to make
Not able to Able to recall Has applied between facts
deductions about
recall or or the concepts and inferences.
other
III. appropriately appropriately correctly for Can trouble
extensions/appli
Knowledge interpret interpret the conduct shoot and
cations of the
instructions instructions of the explain
experimental
provided provided experiment problems/devia
results
tions

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Practical 1
Introduction to Lab Equipment and Lab Layout

Objective

 To introduce the basics of all the equipment of Fluid Mechanics Lab

 To draw lab lay out for understanding the dynamics of the lab

Apparatus

 Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration apparatus Moment of Inertia

 Impact of Jet Apparatus
 Osborne-Reynolds Apparatus
 Orifice discharge Apparatus
 Fluid friction in pipe Apparatus
 Flow over weir equipment
 Hydrostatic pressure Apparatus
 Wind Tunnel

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time
Pre-Lab Activity (signed by the instructor)
1 5 ~ 10 mins
2 Lecture + Optional quiz 20 ~ 30 mins
3 Performing Experiment 100 ~120 mins
4 Results & Evaluation (signed by the instructor) 10 ~ 20 mins
Total Time: 180

Reference Books
 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics by Munson, Young, Okiishi, HT Jhon, J. Wiley and Sons
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Philip J. and Jhon C., John Wiley & Sons.
 Fluid Mechanics by Frank M White, Mc-Graw Hill

Description of Equipment
Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration Apparatus: Figure shows the equipment. The Bernoulli´s Theorem
Demonstration Unit is made up of a transparent pipe of circular section with the shape of a truncated cone
(Venturi tube). The Venturi tube is removable, so it can be located both in convergent-divergent and
divergent-convergent position with respect to the stream direction.

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Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Apparatus

There is also a probe (Pitot tube) that can be displaced along the pipe to measure the total pressure in the
desired section. The flow rate in the unit can be modified either by adjusting the flow control valve or by
regulating the inlet supply with the valve of the Hydraulics Bench.
Impact of Jet Apparatus: The impact of a jet of fluid on surfaces is studied in fluid mechanics, allowing the
calculation of the mechanical work generated in different units. The impact of jet unit (Figure 1) has been
designed to collect experimental measurements of the force exerted by a jet against different surfaces and
compare the values with the theoretical calculations.

Impact of Jet Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a cylindrical tank with transparent lateral surfaces, where a nozzle, connected to the
hydraulic bench, provides a jet of water that impact on the shock surface. The upwards vertical force of the
water against the surfaces is measured using the masses, which compensate that force downwards, using the
gauge as reference to locate the masses always in the same point.

Osborne-Reynolds Apparatus: Below Figure shows the equipment setup. Osborne-Reynold’s experiment is
used to study the characteristics of a liquid flow which flows through a pipe. It is also used to determine the
Reynolds number at each state of the liquid. The apparatus makes it possible to study the characteristics of the
flow of a liquid inside a pipe and the behavior of such flow. Besides, it is possible to determine the range of
the laminar and turbulent flows using the Reynolds number. Thus, difference between laminar, turbulent and
transition flows can be demonstrated and the Reynolds number can be calculated for each regime
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Horizontal Osborne-Reynolds Apparatus

The apparatus contains a transparent and horizontal pipe section, which makes it possible to visualize the fluid,
a water supply tank, which guarantees the flow homogeneity, and a needle connected to a tank through a hose,
from where the coloring matter is supplied.
When water speed is very low, the coloring matter line will be perfectly clear. It indicates a laminar flow, as it
can be observed in (a) of above figure. If water speed increases, the clarity of the coloring matter line starts to
disappear (transition flow), as it can be observed in (b). Finally, as water flowing speed continues to increase,
the coloring matter line is completely broken at some point, reaching then the turbulent flow, as it can be
observed in (c).
Orifice discharge Apparatus: Below Figure shows the equipment. The water of the tank flows through an
interchangeable mouthpiece (a game of 5 mouthpieces is given that represent orifices of different
characteristics) located in the center of the base. The liquid flowing vein goes directly to the volumetric tank of
the Bench.

Orifice Discharge Apparatus

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measure the height of the tube of Pitot and the total height through the orifice, in a panel of 2 manometric
tubes located beside the tank.
Fluid friction in pipe Apparatus: The knowledge of pressure losses occurring in pipes as well as in different
hydraulic accessories is very important in the design and dimensioning of pipes systems. The Fluid Friction in
Pipes apparatus used to determine the friction coefficient in pipes of several diameters and roughness, to study
the pressure losses in different types of valves and different fittings and to compare different methods to
measure the flow.
The apparatus contains five straight pipe sections made of different materials and with different diameters and
roughness. Additionally, a wide range of accessories are included for the study of losses in straight pipes,
several types of valves (gate, ball, angle seat, etc.), pipe fittings (in-line strainer, elbows, sudden widening,
contraction, etc.).

Fluid friction in Pipe Apparatus

The different pipe sections, valves and pipe fittings include several pressure measurement points with
quick action connections to fit the tubing that is connected to the corresponding pressure measuring device.
With this unit friction pressure losses can be investigated over a wide range of Reynolds numbers, thereby
covering the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes. Two water manometric tubes allow studying
the pressure losses in the laminar regimen. Two Bourdon manometers allow obtaining the pressure losses
in the turbulent regimen. Additionally, it includes a flowmeter to measure and to compare measurements of
flow with the Venturi tube and the Pitot tube.
Flow over weir equipment: Following terms are important in the regard of this equipment
Notch: A notch may be like an orifice with water surface below its upper edge.
Weir: A notch with knife edge is called weir
Crest: The bottom edge over which the liquid flows is known as a crest or sill.
End contraction: When breadth of a rectangular notch is less than the width of the channel there will be a
lateral contraction of napple. This contraction is called end contraction.
The flow through a rectangular orifice is given by the expression:

where:
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µm is the unloading coefficient

b is the width of the neckline or the width of the weir
h is the height of the load or the height of the water on the crest or weir threshold.
For the V-shape weir, the expression that lets us to obtain the liquid flow that circulates through it is:

where:
µm is the unloading coefficient
Ø/2 is the vertex semi-angle of the neckline
h is the load height.

Schematic of flow over Weir Equipment

Hydrostatic pressure Apparatus: Figure shows the equipment. The accessory consists of a quadrant (a fourth
of a ring) that will float on the fluid. This element is mounted on an arm of a balance that swings around and
axle. When the quadrant is submerged into the water tank, the force that acts against the frontal surface (flat
and rectangular) will cause a momentum in relation to the supporting axle.

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General sight of Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus

The balance bridge has a support for weights, where we can place different weights, and a counterweight that
can move in the turn direction of the system. The tank includes adjustable supporting legs that determine its
correct leveling with the help of the bubble level, located in one of the legs. It has a draining valve. The level
reached by water inside the tank is indicated in a graduated scale placed inside the ballcock.
Wind Tunnel:1. L-1: rim, placed exactly in the intake section. There is an abrupt contraction area, which
tends to cause detachment of the current in the internal walls of the tunnel, in its initial section. On one hand, it
elevates the pressure drop and, on the other hand, and more important, it generates interferences that will be
reflected in the working section.

Wind Tunnel
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2. C-1: contraction or nozzle whose function is to accelerate the current from the low velocities at the inlet to
the high velocities of the working section. The inlet of air from the atmosphere must be as lower as possible to
decrease the pressure drop and the disturbances in the inlet area. The shape of the duct must be appropriate to
avoid detachment because of pressure interferences that locally happen in the walls of the inlet and outlet areas
of this contraction.
3. AT-1: working area or test chamber, located behind the contraction. It is a constant section stretch with a
door on one side to assemble different drag models. It consists of a cover with a hole to assemble the model.
4. P-1: large door for the assembly of different models.
5. P-2: small door to introduce the hand and adjust the model once assembled.
6. D-1: diffuser, it is a non-constant section area. At the working section outlet there is a high speed and low-
pressure current (according to Bernoulli’s equation). If the discharge is made freely, according to the second
law of thermodynamics, implies an important energy dissipation (that should be given to the flow to maintain
it). This dissipation would take place in form of turbulence and would damage the current quality in the
working section. Thus, it is interesting to approach the state of the current as much as we can to that of the
balance with the atmosphere before discharging the air by increasing the cross section of the duct
progressively, so to force a speed decrease and, according to Bernoulli’s equation, a pressure increase.
7. AVE-1: variable speed axial-flow fan, controlled from the computer (PC). It supplies an amount of energy
like the pressure drop, that is, pressure at a constant rate. In practice, axial flow-fans are better, since they
provide a more uniform velocity profile in the working area.
8. TPT-1: fixed Pitot tube. It is an instrument that measures the static and total pressure of a flowing fluid to
determine the dynamic pressure and, therefore, the local velocity of the flow. It has two tubes that measure the
total pressure and the static pressure, both in millimeters of water column.
9. TP-1: pressure taps. 30 taps are distributed along the longitudinal axis of the tunnel, 10 in the contraction
zone, 10 in the area of the diffuser and 10 external to the tunnel to connect the tubes depending on the user´s
need.
10. SP-1: pressure sensors. 30 pressure sensors are available to be connected to the pressure taps depending on
the user's need.
Lab Layout
Draw Lab lay out and identify the positions of different apparatuses of the lab with block diagrams.

Precautions:
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Comments:

Evaluation Rubric:
Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks
Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

sequential, and in are present but lacking are incomplete and Procedure is
Procedure Complete sentences. Picture Completeness. procedure is missing.
of steps are included. Conclusion is lacking. Conclusion Conclusion is
Conclusion is complete and complete and written is incomplete missing.
written in complete sentence. in incomplete sentence

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

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Practical 2
Demonstration of Bernoulli’s Theorem

Objective

 To determine the pressure head, velocity head and elevation head by using Bernoulli ‘s theorem .

Apparatus

 Hydraulic bench
 Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration apparatus
 Measuring flask
 Chronometer / stopwatch

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Pre-Lab Activity (signed by the instructor)
1 5 ~ 10 mins
2 Lecture + Optional quiz 20 ~ 30 mins
3 Performing Experiment 100 ~120 mins
4 Results & Evaluation (signed by the instructor) 10 ~ 20 mins
Total Time: 180

Reference Books

 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics by Munson, Young, Okiishi, HT Jhon, J. Wiley and Sons
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Philip J. and Jhon C., John Wiley & Sons.
 Fluid Mechanics by Frank M White, Mc-Graw Hill

Theory

Bernoulli equation: Considering a constant flow in two different sections of a pipe and applying the law of conservation
of energy, Bernoulli equation may be written as:

P 1 V 12 P 2 V 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
γ 2g γ 2g

If the pipe is horizontal, Z1=Z2. So the previous equation will be:

P V2
H= +
γ 2g
Where:

2
V
= Kinetic head [m].
2g

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P
= h = Piezometric head [m]. It is the head of a water column associated with the pressure of the gravitational field.
γ

H = Total head [m].

In other words, Bernoulli’s theorem indicates that the total head (or energy) of a fluid along a pipe is kept constant in all
sections.
Graphic representation of Bernoulli’s theorem: These theoretical bases consider the fluid to be ideal, that is, with null
viscosity. However, in fact, the velocity of the particles decreases due to friction between the particles of the fluid and
the pipe. Consequently, part of the energy of the fluid is dissipated as heat.

Figure 1: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration

Considering that ΔH is the pressure drop between two sections, Bernoulli equation will be:

P 1 V 12 P 2 V 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + ΔH
γ 2g γ 2g

Thus, the graphic representation will be:

Figure 2: Graphic representation of Bernoulli’s Theorem

Pitot Tubes: A Pitot tube is considered as a fixed obstacle in a flowing fluid (encircle in Figure 1). The pressure line
finishes in the impact point (P). If we make an orifice in this point (P) and we connect it with a measurement tube, we
are measuring the total pressure in that section (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Pitot Tube Section

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We can also know the average velocity in the pipe section:

P 1 V 12 P 2 V 22
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g

V1 = V (particles velocity), V2 = 0

V
2
P −P1
= 2 = Δh V= √ 2 g Δh
2g γ
Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration Apparatus: Figure 4 shows the equipment. The Bernoulli´s Theorem
Demonstration Unit is made up of a transparent pipe of circular section with the shape of a truncated cone (Venturi
tube). The Venturi tube is removable, so it can be located both in convergent-divergent and divergent-convergent
position with respect to the stream direction.

Figure 4: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Apparatus

Procedure

1. Determine the values of the areas of the different sections of the Venturi tube. Record readings in Table 1.
2. Fill all the manometer tubes.
3. Open the flow valve of the hydraulics bench or basic hydraulic feed system (VCC-1) and the control valve of the
unit (VR-1).
4. Set a flow rate (Q) and record the value.
5. Place the Pitot tube in the first pressure tapping using the wheel to move the Pitot tube. Wait until the head of the
Pitot manometer tube becomes stable.
6. This process may take 5-7 minutes.
7. When the head of the manometer tubes is stable, determine the head difference (mm) between the manometer tube of
the Pitot tube and the manometer tube of the pressure tapping to which the Pitot tube has been connected.

8. √
Compute velocity by [2 g ( h tp−h i) ]/ ρ ; Where

o “hi” is the static pressure, the pressure obtained from the seven manometer tubes positioned from left to
right.

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o Total pressure “htp”, the pressure obtained from the right-side manometer tube of the panel connected to the
Pitot tube.

9. Determine the velocity of the fluid and the kinetic head for each position.
10. Determine the total theoretical head by adding the theoretical kinetic head and the measured static head

Observations and Calculations

Table 1: Experimental Results for Different Sections of Venturi Tube

Position Q1 (L/min) Q2 (L/min)

htp-i hi V1 A1 htp-I V2 A2 Aavg

hi (m)
(m) (m) (m/s) (m2) (m) (m/s) (m2) (m2)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Table 2: Experimental Results for Bernoulli´s theorem. Divergent-convergent position

Total
Piezometric Total Head
Flow rate A avg V Kinetic Head Head
Position Head (h i / ρ g ) (Kin +
(m3/s) (m2) (m/s) (m) (h tp / ρ g )
(m) Piez)

Divergent-
convergent
position

Convergent-
Divergent-
position

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Evaluation Rubric
Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks
Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:
Post Lab Activity
a) Why does the pressure measure by the Pitot tube decrease / increase along the pipe?

b) Do these total heads coincide with the total heads measured with the pitot probe? Explain the difference, if any.

c) Comment the validity of Bernoulli equation for convergent flow and divergent flow?

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 3
Determination of the metacentric height

Objective

To determinate the metacentric height of a typical float.

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Introduction

Metacentric height equipment

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The equipment is formed by a rectangular bridge (1) that has a vertical mast (4). The vertical mast has a movable mass
(3) that can be adjusted in order to vary the gravity center of the bridge. A plummet is fixed to the upper part of the mast
(2), and it is used for measuring the inclination angle of the fixed bridge with a graduated scale(6) (in grades). This
inclination is controlled using an adjustable transversal mass (5), whose position is indicated in a linear scale (7).

Theoretical basis

Let us consider the equation

GM = Δm x/m tanθ
where GM = metacentric height in mm

Δm = mass of the movable weight in Kg

x = distance to the movable weight from the central position in mm m = mass of the float in Kg

θ = inclination angle in grades

and the equation

BM = I/V
where I = momentum of inertia of the plane of water respect to the longitudinal axis Lb³/12
V = volume of displaced water
BM = distance between the careen center and the metacenter
Taking into account that the surface of the floating base has as dimensions
a x b being a the width of the rectangle and b its longitude, the distance BM will be:

BM= I/V= a 3  b/12  V

Then, GM = BM – BG
Procedure

1. Weigh the adjustable transversal mass, as well as the floating prismatic base and assemble it .Disassemble the
piston and determine accurately its weight.
2. Displace the sliding mass up to the upper part of the mast, in such a way that the gravity centers is in the upper
part of the floating assembly.
3. Make sure that the adjustable mass is in its central position. Place the equipment in the volumetric tank and
check that the zero is between the plummet line and the scale...
4. Move the adjustable mass to the right of the center in 10 mm steps of x, until the end of the scale, taking note of
the angular displacement of the plummet line for every position.
5. Repeat the same process for movements of the adjustable mass to the left of the center.
6. Repeat all the above process for the different weights of the sliding mass in the mast, that is, for different
positions of the gravity center.

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Observations and Calculations

● Complete the following table with the obtained values.

Note down the dimensions of the float and, with the data obtained, complete the following tables:

Movable mass, Δm = (Kg)

Mass of the float set, m= (Kg)

Position of the gravity center of the float set, taking it as a base,

y= (mm)

Table 1.1: Experimental Results

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With the mass and the plane area of the float we can obtain V and, consequently:

Immersion depth, d= (mm)

Position of CB from the base,

d/2 = (mm)

Compare GM with V and note down GM when  = 0

Verify, by calculating, that BM = I/V = Lb³/12V

It has to be taken into account that L and b are in mm.

Post Lab Activity

Does the position of the metacenter depend on the position of the gravity center?

•Does the metacentric height change with the inclination angle?

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 4
Impact of Jet

Objective

 To determine impact of water jet at different angles on different surfaces.

Apparatus

 Hydraulic bench
 Impact of jet apparatus
 Impact surfaces
 Set of masses
 Chronometer / stopwatch

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

1 Pre-Lab Activity (signed by the instructor) 10 ~ 20 mins

2 Demonstration + Optional quiz 15 ~ 20 mins

3 Performing Experiment 100 ~120 mins

4 Results & Evaluation (signed by the instructor) 10 ~ 20 mins

Total Time: 180

Reference Books

Theory

Driving force: The force made by a jet which hits a surface is obtained by applying the conservation equation of the
movement quantity. This force, for a stationary regime and taking into account that its horizontal component is
cancelled, comes given by the expression;

Fy=ρ.Q.(V-V.Cos α)

Where;

ρ = Density of the fluid (kg/m3).

Q = Flow which is being used (m3/s).
α = the angle, in degrees, formed by the fluid that has come out, with the normal vector at the impact surface
V = velocity of a jet which hits over the problem surface (m/s)

Equation according to the impact surface:

o Flat surface (α = 90o): ρ . Q2 / A

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3
o Curved surface (α = 120o): . ρ . Q2 / A
2
o Semi spherical surface (α = 180o): 2 . ρ . Q2 / A

Equilibrium of forces: To verify the equilibrium state and check that, both the spring and the friction forces do not
influence the experiment, the force exerted by the jet (F y) must be approximately the same than the force exerted by the
masses (Fm) for the flat surface;

Fy = Fm
2
Q
ρ. =m.g
A
Where:
Fm = Vertical force exerted by the masses located on the support (N)
Fy = Upward vertical force exerted by the jet of water on the shock surface (N)
m = Total mass of the weights (kg)
g = Gravity acceleration (m/s2)

Impact of Jet Apparatus: The impact of a jet of fluid on surfaces is studied in fluid mechanics, allowing the calculation
of the mechanical work generated in different units. The impact of jet unit (Figure 1) has been designed to collect
experimental measurements of the force exerted by a jet against different surfaces and compare the values with the
theoretical calculations.

Figure 1: Impact of Jet Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a cylindrical tank with transparent lateral surfaces, where a nozzle, connected to the hydraulic
bench, provides a jet of water that impact on the shock surface. The upwards vertical force of the water against the
surfaces is measured using the masses, which compensate that force downwards, using the gauge as reference to locate
the masses always in the same point.

Procedure:

1. Position the weight carrier on the weight platform and add weights until the top of the target are clear of the stop and
the weight platform is floating in mid position. Move the pointer so that it is aligned with the weight platform.
Record the value of weights on the weight carrier.
2. Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating valve until it is fully open.

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3. The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Place additional weights onto the weight carrier until the
weight platform is again floating in mid position. Measure the flow rate and record the result on the test sheet,
together with the corresponding value of weight on the tray. Observe the form of the deflected jet and note its shape.
4. Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of the weight platform by regulating the flow
rate in about three steps, each time recording the value of the flow rate and weights on the weight carrier.
5. Close the control valve and switch off the pump. Allow the apparatus to drain.
6. Replace the 5mm nozzle with the 8mm diameter nozzle and repeat the tests.
7. Replace the normal vane with the 45° conical vane and repeat the test with both the 5mm and 8mm nozzles.
8. Replace the 45° conical vane with the hemispherical vane and repeat the tests with both the 5mm and 8mm nozzles.

Observations and Calculations:

● Calculate for each result the flow rate and the nozzle exit velocity. Correct the nozzle velocity for the height of the
target above the nozzle to obtain the impact velocity.
● Calculate the impact momentum and plot graphs of impact force against impact momentum and determine the slope
of the graphs for each target.
● Compare your result with the theoretical values.
● Complete the following tables with the obtained values.

Diameter (water jet) = 08 mm

Diameter (shock surfaces) = 40 mm
Temperature = °c
Density of water = ϒ = Kg/m3

Table 1: Observations Sheet

Volume Q x 10-4 %
Mass (g) Time (s) Q x 10-7
2
F (N) F (N) Error
(L) (m /s)
y m
3

Flat Surface

Curved Surface

Hemispherical Surface

Evaluation Rubric
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Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

Post Lab Activity

a) Which is the minimum flow rate that lifts the platform where the masses are located?

b) Describe the change in original momentum of the stream which can be transferred to the object by varying a fluid
stream’s deflection angle.

c) Draw the diagram of experimental force vs theoretical force for all surfaces, available in lab (Attach graph with
report).

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 5
Visual analysis of flow

Objective

 To visually determine the conditions which differentiate the laminar, transition and turbulent flows in a fluid
(water).

Apparatus

● Hydraulic bench
● Osborne-Reynolds Apparatus.
● Coloring matter / dye color
● Chronometer / Stop watch

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

Reynolds number: Reynolds number, R, is used as a parameter to classify the type of regime in a flow. Calculation of
the Reynolds number is determined by the critical velocity of the fluid, which corresponds to the transition velocity from
laminar to turbulent flow. Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of currents could be established inside a pipe.
He managed to classify the type of current regardless the size and type of pipe by means of a dimensionless parameter,
the Reynolds number.
The number is defined by this formula:
Re = ρf V D / μ
Where:
ρf = density of the fluid [kg/m3].
V = velocity of the liquid flow [m/s].
μ = dynamic viscosity [kg/m*s].
D = diameter of the pipe [m].
Then, Reynolds number will be in function of the velocity and the inner diameter of the pipe and inversely proportional
to the kinematic viscosity.
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Laminar Flow: A laminar flow is when the fluid only has translation movements. The trajectories and flow lines of the
different particles of the fluid are arranged in parallel. It can be considered that the movement of the fluid is in layers and
they do not mix or cross among them. Under these conditions, the trajectories of the coloring matter particles can be
easily identified as a line. There is a proportionality relation between the head loss and the current velocity. This regime
is established for Reynolds’ values lower than 2000.
Transition flow: It is the area where there is no clear relation between the head loss and the flow velocity. This regime
is established for Reynolds’ values between 2000 and 4000.
Turbulent Flow: A turbulent flow is when the particles of a fluid are subjected to translation, rotation, and deformation
movements. The flow is chaotic and the current lines are intercrossed. Under these conditions, the coloring matter
spreads in the water and the trajectory of its particles cannot be observed. The head loss is proportional to the square of
the velocity. It is due to the formation of turbulences and refluxes inside the pipe. This flow is established for Reynolds’
values higher than 4000.
Parabolic Velocity Profile: The property that defines a fluid is its behavior against a shear force (a force that is
tangential to its surface). A solid is distorted in the direction of the force, but a fluid acquires a certain velocity in such
direction. However, the whole fluid does not gain the same velocity due to the friction among its different layers.
In the case of a pipe, a difference of pressure has been applied to the fluid so that it moves. Velocity increases as the
fluid is closer to the center of the tube. It generates the so-called parabolic velocity profile with a maximum value in the
center and a null value in the walls (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Parabolic velocity profile in pipe flow

Osborne-Reynolds Apparatus: Figure 2 shows the equipment setup. Osborne-Reynolds experiment is used to study
the characteristics of a liquid flow which flows through a pipe. It is also used to determine the Reynolds number at each
state of the liquid. The apparatus makes it possible to study the characteristics of the flow of a liquid inside a pipe and
the behavior of such flow. Besides, it is possible to determine the range of the laminar and turbulent flows using the
Reynolds number. Thus, difference between laminar, turbulent and transition flows can be demonstrated and the
Reynolds number can be calculated for each regime

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Figure 2: Horizontal Osborne-Reynolds Apparatus

Figure 3: Detail of different shapes of the coloring matter line in the flow visualization tube

Procedure:

For Visualisation of Flow regime:

1. Close the drain valve (10).
2. Switch on the water supply. Start the pump and fill the tank slowly to the overflow level. Afterwards, fully close the
control valve of the Hydraulic Bench, to avoid the return of the water, and stop the pump.
3. Let the liquid become completely calm inside the apparatus, waiting at least ten minutes before starting the
experiment.
4. Start the pump and carefully open the control valve of the Hydraulic Bench until water leaves through the overflow.
5. Open the valve in such a way that a constant level in the supply water tank is kept.
6. After a while, the test pipe (8) is filled with water.
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7. Residual air can be purged from the pipe by means of a flow control valve (14), opening and closing it several times.
8. When a constant level inside the tank is obtained, gradually open the coloring matter injection valve (5) until having
a slow current of water and coloring matter.
9. Ink must go out very slowly, dragged by the water current.
10. Vary the flow with the control valve until being able to visualize along the tube that the coloring matter draws a
parallel line inside the flow visualization tube (laminar flow).
11. By increasing the flow, progressively opening the control valve, and opening the flow control valve of the Bench at
same time to compensate the level drop due to the flow control valve opening, alterations in the coloring matter will
appear. It will begin to oscillate (transition flow), until finally the coloring matter is completely dispersed in the
water (turbulent flow).

For measurement of Flow regime (Reynolds Apparatus):

1. Follow the steps explained in above procedure (For Visualization of Flow regime).

2. Block the drainage of the Hydraulic Bench with the valve used for that purpose.

3. Switch on the pump. Take a reference value of the volume and switch on the chronometer at the same time.

4. It is recommended to leave water running for 1 minute.

5. Obtain the volume of the water collected during the timed period.

6. Measure and write down the flow value of each regime. Besides, write down the flow value where the border
between them is found.

7. Measure the water temperature.

Visualisation of Parabolic velocity profile:

8. Close the drain valve (10).

9. Switch on the water supply. Start the pump and slowly fill the tank to the overflow level. Afterwards, fully close the
control valve of the Hydraulic

10. Bench or Hydraulic Group to avoid the return of the water and stop the pump.

11. Let the liquid become completely calm inside the apparatus, waiting at least ten minutes before starting the
experiment.

12. Start the pump and carefully, open the control valve of the Hydraulic bench until water leaves through the overflow.

13. Having the flow control valve (14) closed, open the ink tank valve (5).

14. Allow the ink to be accumulated at the admission nozzle inlet until its inner diameter is completely covered in ink.

15. Open the control valve (14) quickly and observe how the parabolic velocity profile is generated inside the glass tube.

16. Repeat the experiment with different openings of the control valve.

Observations and Calculations

● Inner diameter of the glass tube is 16 mm.

● Complete the following table with the obtained values.

● Calculate Reynolds number by using expression: Re = (V x D) / ν

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● ν = viscosity of the fluid (m2/s). In case of water the value is 1 x 10-6 m2/s.

Table 1: Experimental Results

Measured Measured
Visualization Measured Flow Velocity Reynolds
Experiment Volume Volume
Regime Time (s) (m3/s) (m/s) number
(ml) 10-4(m3)
1
2
3

Evaluation Rubric:
Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks
Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

Post Lab Activity

a) Draw the shape of the coloring matter line inside the tube depending on what was visualized in each type of flow?

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b) Do these results have coherence with those obtained by Osborne Reynolds?

c) How does the Reynolds number change with the flow increase?

d) Represent flow (y-axis)-Reynolds number (x-axis) in the graph.

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 6
Velocity of flow

Objective

 To measure flow velocity through the orifice plate

Apparatus

 Hydraulic bench
 Pitot tube / Orifice discharge apparatus
 Mouthpiece

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

Whenever, a fluid is flowing or at rest it possesses three or two types of energy. But at least, there must be two types of
energies in liquid at a time. These include pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy. The sum of all these
energies remains constant if the flow is incompressible, steady, frictionless flow and flow along streamline as per
statement of Bernoulli’s theorem. All these energies are mutually adjustable as per statement of law of conservation of
energy.
Sometimes it is very difficult to express the energy of fluid in its units i.e. N.m, kg.m etc because of bulky quantity of
fluid. In order to tackle this situation, we use another unit called head. Head is equal to energy possessed by fluid per
unit mass or weight. Its unit is m, mm, ft, inches etc. By keeping it in mind, a French engineer Henri Pitot invented Pitot
tube in early 18th century. The Pitot tube was modified to its modern form in the mid of 19th century by French scientist
Darcy.
In the sense of energy, pressure may be defined as energy per unit volume. There are three types of pressures based on
the energy. These are static pressure, dynamic pressure and stagnation or total pressure. The static pressure exists in
fluids when it is in rest and is measured by piezometer.
The simple type of pitot tube used to measure the flow in channels is L shaped tube which directly measures the velocity
head. Whereas a prandlt’s type tube is used in laboratories, pipelines, aircrafts, industries to measure the velocity of flow

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by considering the difference of stagnation pressure and static pressure. The magnitude of stagnation pressure can be
derived from a simplified form of Bernoulli Equation.
1 2
Pstagnation = ρ v + Pstatic
2

Where:
ρ = density of the fluid [kg/m3].
V = velocity of the fluid [m/s].
Pstatic = Static pressure at any point [N/m2].
Pstagnation = Stagnation pressure [N/m2].

At a stagnation point, the speed of the fluid is zero. If the gravity head of the fluid at a particular point in a fluid flow is
zero, then the stagnation pressure at that particular point is equal to total pressure. However, in general, total pressure
differs from stagnation pressure in that total pressure equals the sum of stagnation pressure and gravity head.
Velocity Coeffecient (CV): It is the ratio of the actual velocity to the theoretical velocity of a fluid jet.

CV = Vact / Vthr (or) Vact / √ 2 gh

Orifice discharge Apparatus: Figure 1 shows the equipment. The water of the tank flows through an interchangeable
mouthpiece (a game of 5 mouthpieces is given that represent orifices of different characteristics) located in the center of
the base. The liquid flowing vein goes directly to the volumetric tank of the Bench.

Figure 1: Orifice Discharge Apparatus

A tube of Pitot can be placed in any point of the flowing vein to determine its total height of load. A traverse device,
joined to the tube of Pitot, allows determining the diameter of the liquid flowing vein. You can measure the height of the
tube of Pitot and the total height through the orifice, in a panel of 2 manometric tubes located beside the tank.

Procedure:

1. Assemble the device on the channel of the Hydraulic Bench and level it so that it is horizontal.
2. Connect the inlet tube to the device, by means of a flexible conduit, to the output driving mouthpiece of the
Hydraulic Bench. The device should be ready to discharge directly in the channel. The leakage that can take place
through the overflow should be directed to drain in the overflow channel of the volumetric tank.
3. To obtain readings that are the most stable as possible, the position of the inlet vertical tube should be adjusted so
that, the diffuser is simply hidden under the surface free of water in the tank.
4. Place mouthpiece and measure the diameter of the discharge orifice with vernier calliper.
5. Introduce water in the tank to fill it until the superior level of the overflow tube is reached. Regulate the flow that has
been introduced to have a small discharge through the overflow, assuring this way the perseverance of the water
level in the tank while the measurements are made.
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6. To see the velocity coefficient, C v, it is necessary to place the tube of Pitot inside the liquid flowing vein, in the
contracted section (place 0.5 times the orifice diameter, below the plane in which it is contained). Write down the
load height indicated by the Pitot tube.
7. Write down the height of the water level, obtained by means of the second manometric tube placed in the panel.
8. For each flow rate allow conditions to become steady, measure and record H o (Static head) and HPitot (stagnation
head).
9. Vary the water flow and determine, for each case, the velocity coefficient.

Observations and Calculations

● Compute theoretical velocity by √ 2 gh ; Where h = HO.

● Complete the following table with the obtained values.

Inlet diameter of discharge orifice = m

Outlet diameter of discharge orifice = m
Temperature = °c
Density of water = ρ = Kg/m3

Table 1: Experimental Results

For first orifice
Inlet diameter of discharge

VAct Dv Av t
Hv Vthr A0
H0 Actual Diameter of Area of Time
Velocit Theoretical Area of
Sr. No Static head Velocity veena Veena (s)
y Head velocity orifice
(mm) (m/s) contracta Contracta
(mm) (m/s) (10-4m2)
(mm) (10-4m2)

Qact Qth Cv Cd Cc
Actual volume Theoretical Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of
flow rate volume flowrate velocity discharge contraction
(m3/s) (m3/s)

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For second orifice

Inlet diameter of discharge orifice

VAct Dv A0 t
Av
H0 Hv Actual Vthr Diameter Area Time
Area of
Sr. Static Velocit Velocity Theoretical of veena of (s)
Veena
No head y Head (m/s) velocity contracta orifice
Contracta
(mm) (mm) (m/s) (mm) (10-
5 2 (10-5m2)
m)

Qact Qth Cv Cd Cc
Actual volume Theoretical Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of
flow rate volume flowrate velocity discharge contraction
(m3/s) (m3/s)

Evaluation Rubric

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

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Post Lab Activity

a) Explain the variation in vena contracta by varying flow rate?

b) Plot the theoretical velocity Vth (on x-axis) versues Coefficient of Velocity Cv (on y-axis). Discuss the behavior of
the flow with the help of plot?

c) Discuss the behavior of the fluid while changing mouth pieces of orifice

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 7
Energy Losses in Pipes

Objective

 To determine pressure drops in pipes under laminar/turbulent flow conditions.

Apparatus

 Hydraulic bench
 Fluid friction in pipe apparatus
 Manometric system
 Chronometer / stopwatch

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

Every fluid flowing inside a pipe suffers energy losses, most commonly known as pressure drops, along the pipe. Those
pressure drops will be larger or smaller depending on the flowing conditions. The knowledge of pressure losses
occurring in pipes as well as in different hydraulic accessories is very important in the design and dimensioning of pipes
systems.

Head loss through fittings: A piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows, tees and valves that
form obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the flowing through the
fittings.

These energy losses are expressed by Darcy equation:

2
V
hf = 4f . .L
2. g . D
Where;

V=velocity of the fluid (m/s)

D= diameter of the pipe (m)
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L= length of the pipe (m)

g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
f = pressure drop factor

For a straight smooth pipe, we have that:

V.D
Re =
ν
Where;

ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

Re = Reynolds number
V = velocity of the fluid (m/s)
D = diameter of the pipe (m)

Pressure drop factor (f):

a) For Laminar regime:

16
f=
ℜ
b) So, pressure drop in Laminar regime:

2
V
hf = 32 ν . 2 .L
ρ.g. D

Where;

V = fluid velocity (m/s)

D = diameter of the pipe (m)
L= length of the pipe (m)
c) For Turbulent regime (Colebrook-White equation):

Where;

Ɛ= roughness of the pipe

D= diameter of the pipe (m)
f = pressure drop factor

Test Sections: A 90o bend, a 90o elbow, a 45o elbow, a 45o “Y”, a 90o “T”.

Fluid friction in pipe Apparatus: The knowledge of pressure losses occurring in pipes as well as in different hydraulic
accessories is very important in the design and dimensioning of pipes systems. The Fluid Friction in Pipes apparatus
(Figure 1) used to determine the friction coefficient in pipes of several diameters and roughness, to study the pressure
losses in different types of valves and different fittings and to compare different methods to measure the flow.

The apparatus contains five straight pipe sections made of different materials and with different diameters and
roughness. Additionally, a wide range of accessories are included for the study of losses in straight pipes, several types
of valves (gate, ball, angle seat, etc.), pipe fittings (in-line strainer, elbows, sudden widening, contraction, etc.).

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Figure 1: Fluid friction in Pipe Apparatus

Procedure

1. Connect the unit to the hydraulics bench.

2. Fill the tubes of the differential manometer.
3. Start the unit in turbulent regime.
4. Record the manometers data. Record the manometers measurements in the corresponding tables of the
worksheet. Indicate the head of both left and right tubes (water column mm) for the differential manometer.
5. In the Bourdon manometers case, record the measurement displayed in bar.
6. Measure the flow rate and determine the average velocity of the current from the flow rate.
7. Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates.

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Observations and Calculations

 For the calculation of hf from the measurements of the Bourdon manometer the pressure units (bar) must be
converted to head difference (m). So:

ΔP = ρ g Δh

Where; ΔP = Pressure difference measured in the Bourdon manometers (Pa)

Δh (hf) = Head difference (m)
 Calculate the pressure drop factor by using Darcy equation.
● Complete the following tables with the obtained values.

Temperature = °c

Density of water = ϒ = Kg/m3

Table 1: Test Section

Flow Bourdon Pipe

Time Velocity
Vol (L) rate reading hf dia Re f
(s) (m/s)
(m3/s) (bar) (m)

Evaluation Rubric
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Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

Post Lab Activity

1. Let the piping system has been designed without incorporating frictional losses. What economical and frictional
losses can be occurred?

2. A liquid flows with the same velocity through two pipes 1 and 2 having the same diameter. If the length of the
second pipe be twice that of the first pipe, what should be the ratio of the head loss in two pipes?

Analysis

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Conclusion

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Practical 8
Rectangular weir in a thin wall

Objective

 Study of the flow characteristics through a rectangular neckline, made on a thin wall with a sharp threshold.

Apparatus

 Hydraulic bench
 Flow over weir equipment
 Chronometer / stopwatch

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

Notch: A notch may be like an orifice with water surface below its upper edge.
Weir: A notch with knife edge is called weir
Crest: The bottom edge over which the liquid flows is known as a crest or sill.
End contraction: When breadth of a rectangular notch is less than the width of the channel there will be a lateral
contraction of napple. This contraction is called end contraction.
The flow through a rectangular orifice is given by the expression:

where:
µm is the unloading coefficient
b is the width of the neckline or the width of the weir
h is the height of the load or the height of the water on the crest or weir threshold.
For the V-shape weir, the expression that lets us to obtain the liquid flow that circulates through it is:

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where:
µm is the unloading coefficient
Ø/2 is the vertex semi-angle of the neckline
h is the load height.

Figure 1

Procedure

1. Assemble the equipment (screen, mouthpiece, and weir board) as it is indicated in figure 2.
2. Place the support with the nonius at the half, approximately, of the distance between the weir and the screen.

Figure 2

3. Supply water to the channel until it unloads through the weir.

4. Close the supply control valve and stop the pump.
5. Let the water level in the channel to stabilize.
6. Once a minimum precise contact between the point of the lancet, or the tangency point of the hook, and the free
surface of water, has taken place, adjust and immobilize the nonius of the caliber to zero.
7. Supply water to the channel adjusting the flow control valve to obtain, successively, step increments of the load
height, h.
8. In each step increment of the flow, and once the regimen conditions are stabilized, measure and note down the
value of the load height, as well as the flow using the scales in the volumetric tank and the chronometer.

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Observations and Calculations

● Complete the following tables with the obtained values.

Table 1

Evaluation Rubric:
Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks
Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 9
V-shape weir in a thin wall

Objective

 Study of the flow characteristics through a weir with a V-shape neckline, made on a thin wall and with a sharp
threshold

Apparatus

 Hydraulic bench
 Flow over weir equipment
 Chronometer / stopwatch

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

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where:
µm is the unloading coefficient
Ø/2 is the vertex semi-angle of the neckline
h is the load height.

Figure 1

Procedure

1. Assemble the equipment (screen, mouthpiece and weir board) as it is indicated in figure 2.
2. Place the support with the nonius at the half, approximately, of the distance between the weir and the screen.

Figure 2

3. Supply water to the channel until it unloads through the weir.

Observations and Calculations

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● Determine the angle Ø , in the vertex of the neckline to, together with the data obtained in the practice and complete
the following table.

Table 1

Evaluation Rubric

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 10
Hydrostatic pressure on immersed surface

Objective

 To determine the hydrostatic pressure on a vertical surface placed at liquid surface and at a considerable depth
from the liquid surface.

Apparatus

 Hydrostatic pressure apparatus with float

 Set of masses
 Mass hanger

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

The objective of this lab module is to measure the force made on the surfaces which are in contact with it. In order to do
it, we will take a geometry in which the pressures made on its surface do not generate momentum in relation to a point
(with the exception of one of them that will be the surface upon which we will carry out the experiment).
Momentum: It is the product of applying a force at a given distance. M = F * d
The force produced by the fluid on a solid surface, that is in contact with it, is equal to the product of the pressure made
on it with its area, (see Figure 1, where A = b* l). F = P * A

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Figure 1: Important Concepts

That force that acts on each essential area can be represented by an only resultant force (see F in Figure 1) on the
complete surface that acts on a point, called pressures center. (In the figure, it coincides with the center of gravity).
Starting from these fundaments, we will calculate the pressure done by the fluid on the submerged surface that, as we
said, will be equal to an equivalent force applied to a certain point. If the solid surface is flat, the resultant force
coincides with the total force; because the essential forces are parallel (It is an arithmetic addition of the forces).
If the surface is not flat, the essential forces are not parallel and they will have opposite components, so the resultant
force will be smaller than the total force (it is a vectorial addition of the forces, and there will be components to add up
and to subtract).

Hydrostatic pressure Apparatus: Figure 2 shows the equipment. The accessory consists of a quadrant (a fourth of a
ring) that will float on the fluid. This element is mounted on an arm of a balance that swings around and axle. When the
quadrant is submerged into the water tank, the force that acts against the frontal surface (flat and rectangular) will cause
a momentum in relation to the supporting axle..

Figure 2: General sight of Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus

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Figure 3: Dimension Figure of Apparatus

a= 100 mm b = 70 mm d = 100 mm L = 285 mm Section area = 0.007 m2

e = l2 / (12 .ycg)
With this equation we will infer the distance between the Center of Pressures and the turning point (point where the
equivalent force is applied).

Lcp = Lcg + e
i. Determination of the center of pressures at α=90°, partially submerged
e= h/6
Lcp = Lp2 – (h/3)

ii. Determination of the center of pressures at α=90°, partially submerged

Fcp = ρ . g . (h2/2) . b

Procedure

1. Level the tank, acting conveniently on the supporting feet that are adjustable, while checking the “bubble level”.
2. Measure and take note of the designed dimensions by a, L, d y, b. These latest ones correspond to the flat surface
placed at the extreme of the quadrant (Figure 3). Do not forget this step in order to get accurate measures.
3. Introduce water into the tank until the free surface of this will be tangent to the lowest edge of the quadrant (until the
inferior point of the floating element is reached). The fine adjustment of this level can be managed overfilling the
pretended filling and then, draining it slowly through its cap. Maybe you will have to incline a bit the tank to the side
of the cap in order to carry out the drainage. If you have to do it, make sure that you place it correctly again after
that.
4. Place a calibrated weight on the balance tray and add water slowly until the flat surface will be perpendicular to the
base of the tank. In order to carry out this adjustment, we have a white mark that is in the end of the arm (end- hook),
besides the tray.
5. Take note of the water level, indicated in the quadrant, and of the value of the weight located on the tray (Table 1).
6. Repeat the previous operation several times, increasing steadily the weight of the tray in each one of them until, once
the balance bridge will be leveled, the level of the water free surface will touch the upper edge of the rectangular flat
surface that the end of the quadrant has (until the flat surface is completely covered).
7. Since now, and on the contrary order as they were placed on the tray, we remove the added weights in each
operation, we level the arm (after each removal) using the draining cap, and the weights and water levels (h) are
noted on the tray.

Symbology
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a = Inner radius of the element.

b = Depth of the element to study (geometric dimension of the thickness).
d = Height of the section to study (outer diameter- inner diameter).
L = Distance from the weights support to the turning point.
Lp2 = Distance from the turning axle to the most pressure applied point (outer radius of the ring).
p = Pressure over the surface of the object.
p1 = Pressure on the closest point to the fluid surface.
p2 = Pressure on farest point to the fluid surface.
y = Distance to the fluid surface all along the object surface.
ycg = Distance to the fluid surface from the center of gravity all along the object surface.
ycp = Distance to the fluid surface from the center of pressures all along the object surface.
h = Depth.
h1 = Depth from the closest point to the fluid surface.
h2 = Depth from the farest point to the fluid surface.
Fcp = Equivalent force on the center of pressures.
e = Distance from the center of gravity to the center of pressures [m].
l = Submerged length of the surface to study [m].

Observations and Calculations

For h < d (Partial immersion)

● Calculate the values of Lcp, taking into account that: Lcp = Lp2 – (h/3) , Where Lp2 is the turning end radius ( Lp2 = a
+ d ).
● Calculate the values of Fcp, taking into account that: Fcp = ρ . g . (h2/2) . b , Where Lp2 is the turning end radius ( Lp2
= a + d ).
● Complete the following table with the obtained values.

Table 1: Experimental Results

Emptying of the Theoretical Absolute Error

Filling of the tank Averages Calculations
tank Calculations %
Weights Heights Weights Heights Fm hm Lcp Fcp Lcp Fcp
Lcp Fcp
F (N) h (mm) F (N) h (mm) (N) (mm)

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POST LAB ACTIVITY

Q: Why it is necessary to measure the hydrostatic pressure? Answer with logical arguments?

Q: How moment can be relate with this experiments?

Q: Discuss the relation between center of pressure and center of gravity?

Evaluation Rubric:

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 11
Measurement of Lift and Drag Force in Aerodynamic Tunnel

Objective

 To determine the lift and drag force of the given drag model by varying the air flow at constant angle of attack.

Apparatus

 Wind Tunnel
 Different drag models to be placed inside the tunnel
 Mass hanger
 Weights

Activity Time Boxing

Task No. Activity Name Activity Time

Reference Books

Theory

The TA300/300C wind tunnel allows the study of the principles of subsonic aerodynamics and the performance of
aerodynamic tests in an open circuit tunnel with incompressible subsonic flow
Description of the unit
1. L-1: rim, placed exactly in the intake section. There is an abrupt contraction area, which tends to cause detachment of
the current in the internal walls of the tunnel, in its initial section. On one hand, it elevates the pressure drop and, on the
other hand, and more important, it generates interferences that will be reflected in the working section.

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Figure 1
2. C-1: contraction or nozzle whose function is to accelerate the current from the low velocities at the inlet to the high
velocities of the working section. The inlet of air from the atmosphere has to be as lower as possible to decrease the
pressure drop and the disturbances in the inlet area. The shape of the duct must be appropriate to avoid detachment
because of pressure interferences that locally happen in the walls of the inlet and outlet areas of this contraction.
3. AT-1: working area or test chamber, located behind the contraction. It is a constant section stretch with a door on one
side to assemble different drag models. It consists of a cover with a hole to assemble the model.
4. P-1: large door for the assembly of different models.
5. P-2: small door to introduce the hand and adjust the model once assembled.
6. D-1: diffuser, it is a non-constant section area. At the working section outlet there is a high speed and low pressure
current (according to Bernoulli’s equation). If the discharge is made freely, according to the second law of
thermodynamics, implies an important energy dissipation (that should be given to the flow to maintain it). This
dissipation would take place in form of turbulence and would damage the current quality in the working section. Thus, it
is interesting to approach the state of the current as much as we can to that of the balance with the atmosphere before
discharging the air by increasing the cross section of the duct progressively, so to force a speed decrease and, according
to Bernoulli’s equation, a pressure increase.
7. AVE-1: variable speed axial-flow fan, controlled from the computer (PC). It supplies an amount of energy similar to
the pressure drop, that is, pressure at a constant rate. In practice, axial flow-fans are better, since they provide a more
uniform velocity profile in the working area.
8. TPT-1: fixed Pitot tube. It is an instrument that measures the static and total pressure of a flowing fluid in order to
determine the dynamic pressure and, therefore, the local velocity of the flow. It has two tubes that measure the total
pressure and the static pressure, both in millimeters of water column.
9. TP-1: pressure taps. 30 taps are distributed along the longitudinal axis of the tunnel, 10 in the contraction zone, 10 in
the area of the diffuser and 10 external to the tunnel to connect the tubes depending on the user´s need.
10. SP-1: pressure sensors. 30 pressure sensors are available to be connected to the pressure taps depending on the user's
need.

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Procedure

8. Remove all the optional accessories of the unit.

9. Check that the top cover is correctly positioned and tightened so there are no air leaks.
10. Insert the chosen drag model in the accessory to mount it in the unit
11. Set the force sensors to zero and turn on the fan (AVE-1). Wait a few minutes for the flow to stabilize.
12. Set the desired fan (AVE-1) power in the SOFTWARE SCADA.
13. Record the positive and negative values of Torque
14. Also record the measured drag force, lift force as mentioned in the table.
15. Determine the Coefficient of Lift and Drag.
16. Repeat the previous steps for at least five different air flows, changing the fan (AVE-1) power.
17. Record all data and calculations in Table 1

Observations and Calculations

Table 1: Experimental Results

Position of Angle of Torque Lift Force Drag Velocity V

the Fan Attack +ve -ve FL Force FD (m/s)
(%) (ₒ) (N) (N) (N) (N)
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

1. Discuss the behavior of the lift and drag force with the help of the graph.

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Evaluation Rubric

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (9-10) (7-8) (4-6) (1-2)

Steps of experiment are clear, Steps of experiment Steps of experiment

Performance Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Unsatisfactory Marks

Criteria (5) (3-4) (1-2) (0)

Understanding
the concept Understands everything of the Understand majority Understand few Didn’t able to
topic of the portion. things. understand the
concept.

Lab Instructor:

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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 12
Investigating the Effects of Connecting Pumps in Series and Parallel

Objective:

 output visualization of a head pressure and flow rate

 increase of flow rate of pump in series
 no increase of head pressure of pump in series
 efficiency of pump
 specific speed of pump
 free delivery and shut off point

Apparatus:

 Two identical pumps

 Flow meter
 Pressure gauge
 PVC piping and fittings

Theory

Pumps:

A water pump is a machine that transports water from one location to another. It functions by using pressure or suction
to drive water through a hose or pipe. Electricity, gasoline, diesel, or other forms of power can all be used to power water
pumps. They are frequently used to convey water for irrigation, pool filling, and other reasons in homes, gardens, and
industrial settings. They are also used to transport gasoline and cool engines in cars and boats. Different sizes and types
of water pumps, including submersible, centrifugal, and jet pumps, are available.

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Working principle of pump

pumps utilize fundamental natural forces to displace a liquid. The moving component of the pump, such as the impeller,
vane, piston or diaphragm, begins to rotate or move, which pushes the air out of the way. The movement of air creates a
low pressure area, similar to the vacuum created when sucking on a straw. This low pressure area can be filled with more
air or, in the case of water pumps, water. The liquid is then forced to move through the pump due to the difference in
pressure between the inlet and outlet. This process is similar to how liquid is forced to move up a straw when a partial
vacuum is created in the mouth.

Types of pumps
Centrifugal pumps: These devices use an impeller to generate centrifugal force, which causes fluid to flow away from
the impeller's center. These pumps are frequently employed in a wide range of commercial and industrial applications,
including irrigation, water supply, and HVAC systems.
This kind of pump produces an enhancement within force by transmitting mechanical power from the electrical motor to
the liquid throughout the revolving impeller. The flow of liquid will enter the centre of impeller and exits along with its
blades. The centrifugal power hereby enhances the velocity of fluid & also the energy like kinetic can be altered to force

Positive displacement pumps:

Positive displacement pumps add energy to a fluid by applying force to the liquid with a
mechanical device such as a piston or plunger. A positive displacement pump decreases the volume containing the liquid
until the resulting liquid pressure equals the pressure in the discharge system. That is, the liquid is compressed
mechanically, causing a direct rise in potential energy. Most positive displacement pumps are reciprocating pumps in
which linear motion of a piston or plunger in a cylinder causes the displacement. In rotary pumps, another common
positive displacement pump, a circular motion causes the displacement. There are several manufacturers of positive
displacement pumps which are often found in high-pressure services
Submersible pump
A submersible pump is a sealed, airtight motor that is tightly connected to the pump body. This type of pump's main
benefit is that it avoids pump cavitation, a problem brought on by a significant elevation difference between the pump
and the fluid surface. Due to the fact that the entire assembly is submerged in the fluid, submersible pumps never need
priming. Water pressure forces water into a submersible pump, "saving" a significant amount of the pump's energy in the
process. This makes submersible pumps very energy-efficient.

Free delivery point

A free delivery point (FDP) is a point in a pump system where the fluid is discharged from the pump and is not
constrained by any downstream system components or devices. At this point, the fluid is free to flow and the pressure is
determined solely by the pump's discharge pressure.

Shut-off point:

The shut-off point (SOP) is the point in a pump system where the pump is operating at its maximum discharge pressure
with no flow. This is also known as the zero flow condition, when the outlet is closed or blocked. The shut-off point is
typically used to determine the maximum pressure that a pump can produce.
It's important to note that the FDP and SOP can be different depending on the type of pump, the size of the system and
the fluid properties. Knowing the FDP and SOP are important for the design and operation of pump systems, as it allows
engineers to determine the performance of the pump and match it with the system requirements. It also helps to identify
the optimal operating point for the pump, avoiding overworking the pump or insufficient flow.

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Efficiency of a pump

The efficiency of a pump is a measure of how well it converts the input energy (usually electrical) into useful output
energy (mechanical energy to move fluid). It is usually expressed as a percentage and can be calculated using the
following formula
Efficiency = (Output Power / Input Power) x 100%

The output power is the useful power that is delivered to the fluid, and the input power is the total power consumed by
the pump.

A pump's efficiency can be influenced by several factors, including the design of the pump, the type of fluid being
pumped, the operating conditions (such as flow rate and pressure), and the age and condition of the pump.
Centrifugal pumps: 55% to 75%
Positive displacement pumps: 75% to 90%
Axial flow pumps: 70% to 85%
It's important to note that the efficiency of a pump can change with the operating point, in other words, it can be different
at different flow rates and pressure. Improving a pump's efficiency can lead to significant energy savings and reduced
costs. There are several ways to improve a pump's efficiency, such as: Using a more efficient pump design Operating
the pump at or near its best efficiency point (BEP) Maintaining the pump regularly Using variable speed drive (VSD) to
match the flow rate with the system demand It's important to consult with a professional engineer or pump expert to
determine the best approach for improving a specific pump's efficiency.

Specific Speed Of pump

The specific speed of a pump is a dimensionless parameter that describes the speed at which a pump operates in relation
to its flow rate and head. It is used to determine the type of pump that is suitable for a particular pumping application and
to compare the performance of different pumps.
The formula for the specific speed of a pump is given by.
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Ns = (n / N) * (Q / H^0.5) ^ 0.5 where:

Ns = specific speed
n = rotational speed of the pump (RPM)
N = constant related to the type of pump impeller
Q = flow rate (volume/time)
H = head (distance that a fluid is lifted)
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the valves on the apparatus so that a SINGLE pump is active.
2. Use the valve downstream of the pump(s) to control discharge and the corresponding head. For a given head
(pressure) reading, use the volume-time method to measure the flow rate. Measure the flow rate three times. Record the
values in the appropriate table on the attached data sheet.
3. Measure the head (pressure) downstream of each pump. Make sure that you record the pressure while the pipe is at the
same elevation as it was when you measured the flow rate. Record the values in the appropriate table on the attached
data sheet.
4. Now adjust the valves on the apparatus such that there are two pumps in SERIES. The flow rate should remain
constant. Record the head (pressure) at each gage in Table 1.
5. With the pumps in series, repeat Steps 2 and 3 for five different discharge/head readings, plus with zero flow (shutoff
head).
6. Now adjust the valves on the apparatus such that there are two pumps in PARALLEL.
7. Copy the total head (pressure) readings from the SINGLE pump trial into Table 2 [ΔEp(single)].
8. Adjust the flow valve downstream of the pumps until the pressure (Ep) reading on the gages match (or are very close
to) the values recorded in Step 7. Again, make sure that you record the pressure while the pipe is at the same elevation as
it was when you measured the flow rate.
9. Now perform the volume-time method in order to determine the flow rate with the pumps in parallel. Record the
information in Table 2. 10. Repeat Steps 8 and 9 for all of the pressure measurements, including with no flow.

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Observation and Calculations

Sr Head(m) Volume flow rate

Head(m) Volume Flow rate N (Specific speed)

For Series

For Parallel

Combined (Series and

Parallel)

Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 13
Operation characteristics of a Pelton Wheel turbine.

Objective:

To determine the operative characteristics of a Pelton turbine at several velocities.

Introduction

Pressure Head, Hp: The value of pressure is normally expressed as a unit force per unit area such as
Newton per square meter (N/m2), Pound per square inch (psi), or Kilogram per square centimeter (kg/cm2). In
case of hydraulic pressure, it is customary expressed as a height of a fluid column which exerts the same
pressure on an area supporting the column. This height is called pressure head.
The relation between pressure p and pressure head Hp is:

Where: Hp = pressure head (m); P = pressure (N/m2); ᵧ = Specific weight (N/m3)

Velocity Head, Hv: When liquid flows in a pipe or in an open channel it has kinetic energy. Kinetic energy
per unit weight of liquid is called velocity head.
The kinetic energy of the object in motion is:

Where;
KE = kinetic energy, Nm m = mass, kg
w = weight, N
V = velocity, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

Elevation Head or Static Head, Hs:

When a liquid is at an elevation it has potential energy. Potential energy per unit weight of liquid is called
elevation head or static head. Potential energy of the object at the elevation Z is:

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Where:
P.E. = Potential energy, Nm w = Weight,
N Z = Elevation, m

Total Head, HT:

Total energy of water at any point may be expressed as Total Head at that point. Thus Total Head HT = Pressure Head +
Velocity Head + Static Head

This is often referred to as general energy equation

Friction Head, Hf:

When a liquid flows from one point to another, part of energy or head of liquid flow is lost due to friction between the
liquid and the pipe wall or the flow channel wall as well as the interaction of the liquid molecules.
The resulting head loss is called Friction Head (Hf). Friction Head between point 1 and 2 is:

Types of Hydro Turbines

Impulse type turbine:

In this type of turbine, pressure head is completely transformed into velocity head by a nozzle at an atmospheric
pressure. The water jet is directed towards the turbine runner buckets. With proper design, the velocity of water leaving
the buckets should drop to nearly zero. Notable turbines under this type are Pelton and Cross Flow Turbines.

Reaction type turbine consisting of Francis Turbine and Kaplan or Axial Flow Turbine:
In this type, there is no transformation of a free jet in the turbine as comparing to the impulse (Pelton) turbine.
In this type of turbine, part of the pressure head is transformed into velocity head by guide vanes outside the
runner that directs water to flow into the runner. This over pressure causes an acceleration

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of the relative velocity of the water passing through the runner. Water is then discharged from the
runner in an axial direction to the open space at the atmospheric pressure. The advantageous
characteristics of this type make it suitable for hydroelectric power stations of medium to large sizes,
which can be operated efficiently at a range from medium to high pressure head, and at flow rates in the
medium range. Notable turbines under this type are Francis, Kaplan, and Axial-Flow Turbines. In all
types of turbine, pressure head is transformed partially or wholly into velocity head.

Pelton Turbine:

This impulse type of turbine, as shown in Figure 8.1 is suitable for medium size hydroelectric power station
operating at a rather high head of water with a rather small quantity of water flow.The function of a Pelton
turbine is to transform the fluid energy, first in the potential form of pressure head, into the kinetic form of
velocity head by means of a free water jet in one or more nozzles.

Figure 8.1: Mini Pelton Turbine

The free jet strikes buckets on a rotating wheel. In practice these buckets are usually spoon shaped, with a
central ridge splitting the incoming jet into two halves which are deflected backward through an angle of about
165 degrees as shown in Figure 8.2. Complete reversal of 180 degrees is desirable but it is not possible because
the water must be thrown out sidewise to clear for the following bucket.

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Figure 7.2: Wheel bucket and velocity diagram for Pelton Turbine

Apparatus

 Mini Pelton Turbine

 Hydraulic bench
 Stopwatch

Procedure
 Carefully install hydraulics bench.
 Close drain valve and flow control valve.
 Fill the storage tank of the hydraulics bench with water to about 5 cm. below the full level.
 Install the turbine on the hydraulics bench, ensure that the turbine discharge pipe is aligned with the channel of the
hydraulics bench.
 Connect the hydraulics bench water outlet hose to the water inlet pipe of the turbine.
 Close the turbine control valve (Nozzle Valve, TV).
 Check the dynamometer mechanism, ensure that there is no load attached to the dynamometer.
 Turn on the pump and slowly open flow control valve to full. This provides maximum pump delivery and will generate the
pressure head in the nozzle valve.
 Note that turbine inlet pressure, turbine speed, and torque or spring force read zero.
Begin the Test.

 Slowly open the turbine control valve (TV) to obtain a turbine inlet pressure, e.g. 1.2 kg/cm2.
 Record the following data: Turbine inlet pressure (p) kg/cm2 ; Volume, V l; Time, t min; Turbine speed “n” rpm
 Force on spring balance left, F Left kg
 Force on spring balance right, F Right kg
 Slightly apply a spring balance force right, F Left, to obtain the spring balance force right of around 200 g. Record data as
specified in 2.
 Repeat 3 by slightly apply a spring balance force right, F Left, in steps of 200 g. until the turbine speed is reduced to about
700 rpm.
 Slightly close flow control valve to increase nozzle pressure and repeat step 2 to 4

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Observations and Calculations

Table 8.1: Experimental Results

Results:

Turbine Performance Curves: Test results are commonly expressed in the form of curves plotting on
graph paper. They are known as “Turbine Performance Curves or Characteristic Curves “
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Analysis

Conclusion

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Practical 14
To Calculate the Speed, Torque and efficiency of Francis Turbine.
Objective:
 To find the Speed, Torque, Power of Francis Turbine
 To calculate the efficiency of Francis turbine.
Apparatus:

 Francis turbine,
 tachometer,
 Hydraulic Bench.

Theory:

The Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine which was designed and developed by the American
engineer James B. Francis. Francis turbine has a purely radial flow runner; the flow passing through the
runner had velocity component only in a plane of the normal to the axis of the runner. Reaction hydraulic
turbines of relatively medium speed with radial flow of water in the component of turbine are runner.

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Parts of Francis Turbine:

Pen stoke:

It is a large sized shaped; where the water is provided to the turbine runner from the dam.
Scroll casing:

Penstocks connected to and feeds water directly into an annular channel surrounding the turbine runner. The
channel is spiral in its layout.
Guide vanes:

A series of airfoil shaped vanes called the guide vanes are arranged inside the casing to form a number of
flow passages between the casing and the runner blades. Guide vanes are fixed in position (they do not rotate
with rotating runner).
Guide wheel and governing mechanism:

It changes the position of guide blades to affect variation in the water flow rate in the wake of changing load
conditions on the turbine. When the load changes, the governing mechanism rotates all the guide blades
about their axis through the same angle so that the water flow rate to the runner.
Runner and runner blades:
Runner of the Francis turbine is a rotor which has passages formed between the draft tube and scroll casing.
Draft tube:
After passing through the runner, the water is discharged to the tail race through a gradually expanding tube.

WORKING OF FRANCIS TURBINE:

The amount of water falls on the vanes (buckets) of the runner. The turbine rotor is called runner. Runner
revolves at constant with the help of governing mechanism. The runner shaft is connected with the generator;
thus the electricity is produce with the help of generator. And the water is discharge from the tail race.

Velocity Triangle

In turbo machinery, a velocity triangle or a velocity diagram is a triangle representing the various
components of velocities of the working fluid in a turbo machine. Velocity triangles may be drawn for both
the inlet and outlet sections of any turbo machine. The vector nature of velocity is utilized in the triangles,
and the most basic form of a velocity triangle consists of the tangential velocity, the absolute velocity and the
relative velocity of the fluid making up three sides of the triangle.

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Operation:
The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves
through the turbine, giving up its energy. A casement is needed to contain the water flow. The turbine is
located between the high pressure water source and the low pressure water exit, usually at the base of a dam.
The inlet is spiral shaped. Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to the runner. This radial flow acts on the
runner vanes, causing the runner to spin. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adjustable to allow
efficient turbine operation for a range of water flow conditions. As the water moves through the runner its
spinning radius decreases, further acting on
the runner. Imagine swinging a ball on a string around in a circle. If the string is
pulled short, the ball spins faster. This property, in addition to the water’s pressure,
helps inward flow turbines harness water energy. At the exit, water acts on cup shaped runner features,
leaving with no swirl and very little kinetic or potential energy. The turbine’s exit tube is specially shaped to
help decelerate the water flow and recover kinetic energy.
Application:
Francis Inlet Scroll, Grand Coulee Dam Large Francis turbines are individually designed for each site to
operate at the highest possible efficiency, typically over 90%. They are best suited for sites with high flows
and low to medium head. Francis Turbines are very expensive to design, manufacture and install, but operate
for decades. In addition to electrical production, they may also be used for pumped storage; where a reservoir
is filled by the turbine (acting as a pump) during low power demand, and then reversed and used to generate
power during peak demand.
Francis turbines may be designed for a wide range of heads and flows. This, along with their high efficiency,
has made them the most widely used turbine in the world.
Procedure:
a) Set up the apparatus properly.
b) Make sure all the connections are secure and tight.
c) Connect the turbine to the water supply source.
d) Adjust the spring balances to give no load and make sure they show zero.
e) Set the hydraulic bench to give full flow rate and measure the initial flow rate for reference.
f) Use the tachometer to measure the maximum speed (no load) of the turbine. To do this put the
tachometer against the clear window at the back of turbine and use it to reflective sticker of drum.
g) Slowly increase the load to decrease the rpm in steps of 50 rev/min. At each step record the turbine speed
and the reading of each spring balance. Stop when the speed becomes unstable or the turbine stops
rotating.
h) Repeat the experiment at guide vane setting of 2/3 (66% open) 1/3 (33% open).
i) Calculate the efficiency of the turbine

Mechanical Engineering Department Fluid Mechanics Lab

81 | P a g e

Table and Calculations:

Inlet Pressure:
Guide Vane Setting:
Sr. Left Right Flow Speed Torque Power in Power Pout∗100
η=
No. Balance Balance(N) Rate (r.p.m. (Nm) Pin=P*Q out Pin
(N) (L/S) ) (W) Pout=τω
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Post Lab Activity

j) Why Francis Turbine is called Reaction turbine?

k) How Velocity Triangle is helpful for calculating power?

l) Produce Charts of efficiency (vertical axis) against speed (horizontal axis) and efficiency against flow.

Mechanical Engineering Department Fluid Mechanics Lab

82 | P a g e

Analysis

Conclusion

Mechanical Engineering Department Fluid Mechanics Lab

83 | P a g e

Practical 15
Open Ended Lab

Mechanical Engineering Department Fluid Mechanics Lab

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