Communication for

Social and Behaviour Change

Learning Module Series

MODULE 1 MODULE 2 MODULE 3 MODULE 4 MODULE 5 MODULE 6 MODULE 7 MODULE 8 MODULE 9

MODULE 7
Coordinators and leading contributors:
Paolo Mefalopulos is currently UNICEF Representative, Chile. He was the Chief of Communication for Development
(C4D) at UNICEF India Country Office from June 2009 to March 2014. His expertise is in participatory communication
research and planning. While working for FAO, Paolo was part of a team that developed an innovative methodology
known as PRCA – Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal. He also taught at the University of Texas at
Austin, where he obtained his Ph.D. in international communication. He authored several articles and books
on communication for development. His most recent works, published by the World Bank are: Development
Communication Sourcebook: broadening the boundaries of communication and Participatory Communication: A
practical guide.

Mario Mosquera-Vasquez currently works as Regional Advisor, Communication for Development (Social Change);
UNICEF’s Europe and Central Asia Regional Office (ECARO). He worked as Chief C4D. India from Sept 2014-
Mar 2019. He has over 20 years of experience working on a variety of health promotion, health communication,
community mobilization interventions and research projects, primarily in Latin America and Asia. His doctorate in
public health is from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK. He worked as a visiting research
scholar at Ohio University, USA, and consulted with European universities such as the University of Heidelberg,
Germany, and the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK, in a Latin American Research Center. He has published
research articles in international journals and authored in various books chapters.

Dr. Silvio Waisbord is a Professor in the School of Media and Public Affairs at George Washington University. He
holds a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of California, San Diego. His most recent book (co-edited with Rafael
Obregon) is Handbook of Global Health Communication (Wiley). He is editor-in-chief of the International Journal of
Press/Politics. Dr. Waisbord has lectured and worked in more than 30 countries, has written or edited 8 books, and
published more than 100 journal articles, book chapters, and newspaper columns. He has worked in communication
for social change, particularly in program design and implementation, as well as capacity strengthening and training.

Chike Anyaegbunam is a Professor at School of Journalism and Telecommunications, College of Communication

and Information in the University of Kentucky. He is the Director, Dissemination and Implementation Sciences
Consortium (DISC). He earned a doctorate degree in journalism and mass communication from the University
of Iowa. His areas of expertise are: participatory communication and people empowerment, public relations and
integrated strategic communication, social marketing, international development and rural health communication.
He has published extensively in peer review journals.

Developed 2013; Updated 2019.

© United Nations Children's Fund 2019

2 MODULE 7
MODULE 7
MODULE 7
Themes and methods
for message design and
dialogue‑based materials

The goal of this module is to familiarise students with basic

ideas and steps in message design and dialogue-based
materials. Messages are the arguments for promoting
change. Messages construct, modify, and maintain meaning
of certain actions in ways that inspire positive actions.
Depending on strategic needs and actions, messages may
change individual attitudes, social norms, and policies.

2 MODULE 7
Sub-module 7A: Message design
Unit 1 Message design framework
Unit 2 Message appeals
Unit 3 Message treatments and formats
Unit 4 Message (and relative media) development
Unit 5 Message testing
Unit 6 Material production

Sub-module 7B: Dialogue-based methods and materials

Unit 1 Identify themes for dialogue/IPC
Unit 2 Develop IPC and other dialogue-based methods

Message Design 3
MODULE 7A
UNIT 1

Message design framework

General introduction
Theory guides message design. Messages are not simply designed based on
impressions or preconceived notions. They are embedded in analytical concepts
and evidence-based conclusions about what prompts people to pay attention, recall
and understand certain arguments and persuasive pitches and be motivated to act.
Think about messages as the compelling argument offered to people to consider, pay
attention and decide to change.

Message design frameworks provide ideas to address the question: 'What makes
messages persuasive?' Several factors need to be considered in message design –
the source, receiver, channel, content and context. As they refer to old questions in
communication and rhetoric studies, these factors affect the kind of messages and their
effectiveness. An underlying principle of message framework is the need for nuanced
analysis of why certain messages are more likely to be seen, understood, remembered
and acted upon. This idea questions the simple notion that just making messages
available, especially if they only reflect experts’ expectations and definitions, will result
in information leading to significant changes. Indeed, causal evidence suggests that
even though populations, particularly in modern societies, are constantly bombarded
with all kinds of messages, the fact is that few are comprehended, remembered, or
motivate specific actions.

A wealth of evidence shows that not all population groups are the same, vis-à-vis
a given issue in terms of interest, identification and prioritisation. This has led to
emphasising message segmentation and targeting to increase the likelihood of impact.
Therefore, the first and basic principle of message design is to define the 'audiences'
carefully, based on specific programmatic needs and objectives. Audience segmentation
entails dividing audiences into homogenous subgroups that are internally similar yet,
which differ from one another. This principle contradicts the notion that 'one size fits all'
– that is, one single message is adequate for all populations/groups.

4 MODULE 7
Because audiences can be segmented across multiple variables, it is necessary to
identify what criteria needs to be used for segmentation – demographic (age, gender),
geographical, cultural (beliefs, norms, ethics), attitudinal (people’s attitudes vis-à-vis
a given issue), behavioural, psychographic (ethnicity, race), 'stage of change' (from
opposed to favourable predisposed to practice certain behaviours), communication
(styles, channels, influencers), and others. Indeed, there is no single principle to be
used in determining how populations should be 'sliced'. Instead, what is important
is to understand why given strategic goals, populations need to be segmented in
specific ways. At times, segmentation or 'customisation' on the basis of age, race,
or gender makes sense, given the characteristics of the population and the different
programmatic goals. Other times, it is either not necessary or other criterias weigh
more heavily. The question is whether certain similarities or differences need to be
considered for message design. Segmentation is about increasing the likelihood that
certain 'audiences' would find messages relevant to them and thus are more likely to
pay attention, recall and use the information in their decisions. Evidence shows that
'tailored' and 'personalised' messages are more likely to have a positive impact as
compared to 'generic' messages.

This finding has not settled the old question about what makes a given message
persuasive or effective. Ultimately, the selection of messages is contingent on
the underlying models of change and theoretical principles in a given programme.
Message design depends on the model of change adopted by an intervention. Should
programmes try to promote changes among people who are more likely to practice
a given behaviour rather than who never considered the issues at stake? Should
they mobilise rational or emotional factors? Should they appeal to 'early adopters'
or 'laggards'? Should they reach out to key influencers or different segments of the
population? Given these hypothetically different choices and challenges, there is no
categorical conclusion about 'best practices' for message design. The literature offers
'rules of thumb', questions that need to be considered, rather than specific formulae to
maximise impact.

Several theories explain message processing and impact. For example, the elaboration
likelihood model suggests that individuals use two types of message processing –
central route and peripheral route. While 'central route processing' is when individuals
examine arguments contained within a message, 'peripheral route' processing is when
they rely on heuristics or cues that may not be obviously related to the arguments.
The latter are 'shortcuts' that people use to listen, understand, recall and act upon
messages. The more likely people perceive a message linked to existing concerns,
the better chances are that they would use a 'central route', as opposed to when they
feel less affected and are more likely to rely on cues. Similarly, the hierarchy of effects
model suggests that people go through three stages before adopting a particular

Message Design 5
behaviour and any message should address these stages. The stages are: Cognitive or
'thinking' stage in which the message must provide information about the behaviour,
the affective or 'feeling' stage in which people develop positive or negative feelings
about the behaviour and finally, the conative or 'action' stage where the behaviour is
actually carried out.1

Much has been discussed about whether message design should be based on one or
many analytical/theoretical frameworks. One argument is that, rather than being solely
determined by the premises and argument of a single theory, what is needed is an open
attitude that considers the situation and programmatic goals to determine the principles
that should guide message design. Programmes are not mainly concerned with testing
theories, but rather achieving specific goals. Therefore, what needs to prevail is a
problem-based analysis that is mindful of the conditions while drawing from a range
of theories.

Aside from these perceptions about whether the topic is of concern to specific groups,
the selection of an appropriate channel is also important for message design. Channels
that are regarded as trustworthy are more likely to positively impact message efficacy.
Therefore, the same messages sent by trusted and non-trusted sources are likely
to have different impact, aside from the specific appeals that they use. Context is
important too. When people sense the importance or risk about a given issue, they
are more likely to pay attention, recall and use the concerned messages than when
such conditions are missing. Messages about issues already perceived as relevant are
more likely to have impact on different dimensions. What the context does, in these
situations, is to prime people’s attention about certain topics. Messages then seep
through, in an already conducive context.

Message design needs to consider how context is matched with the information needs
and interests of specific groups, the context in which the information is received and
the elements (production, design) that may contribute to capturing people’s attention,
aiding better comprehension and recall. The relevance of a given message depends
on whether people feel that it is linked to existing issues and concerns. If people do
not think the message is relevant, they are less likely to pay attention and remember
the same. Finally, frameworks need to guide the key steps of message design. They
must define the intended change/behaviour, identify the salient belief (advantages/
disadvantages of current and proposed actions), and determine which salient beliefs
should be addressed by messages.

One framework that considers these key steps of message design is human-centred
design (HCD). HCD involves designing interventions or products by collaborating

1
https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/marketing-and-strategy-terms/12173-hierarchy-of-effects-theory.html

6 MODULE 7
with and learning from the stakeholders/ audience groups the product or solution
is intended for. The goal is to develop products or services that match people's
practices, needs and preferences.2 As identified by Mad*Pow, there are 5 basic
principles that govern HCD. These are:

VV Great design is based on observed, human need (human centricity). In other

words, in order to create effective solutions, we have to see and understand the
challenges and opportunities that real people encounter in their lives.
VV Great design comes from understanding people’s behaviours, thoughts (cognitive
empathy) and emotions (emotional empathy). To create solutions that fit into
people’s lives we need to know about their understandings and perceptions as
they encounter related situations. Additionally, because we know emotions play
a significant role in behaviour and decision-making, we need to understand how
people feel throughout and because of these situations.
VV To make good design decisions, we must first create possibilities to choose
from. When coming up with ideas, the first one you come up with won’t always
be the best. In fact, it rarely is. To find effective, innovative solutions we need
to create a large pool of possible solutions that we can then examine and select
from.
VV Great design comes from a desire to create real outcomes. It isn’t enough to just
create something that seems new and exciting or looks great. Design is about
achieving objectives. If solutions don’t achieve what they’re intended to then
they have not been well designed. Great design understands this and takes into
consideration how it will measure and monitor success.
VV Great design is iterative. It leverages continuous learning and never truly ends.
The design process doesn’t end. A solution, in any form, presents an opportunity
to learn more about those who use it, there experiences, and the challenges and
opportunities it addresses. These learning should then be used to further refine
and evolve the solution.3

Philosophically, HCD and participatory research have similar foundations -- they are
both built on the premise that people affected by a given issue are best positioned
to understand challenges and solutions by being actively involved in the process of
change. There are, however, certain aspects of HCD that distinguish it from participatory
research. First, HCD borrows from a host of disciplines such as social sciences,
behaviour science, behaviour economics. Second, the HCD process is more rapid than
that of participatory research. Finally, HCD places primary emphasis on creating and
prototyping tangible products and solutions.4

2
Marc Steen (2011) Tensions in human-centred design, CoDesign: International Journal of CoCreation in Design and the Arts,
7(1), 45-60.
3
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5715100cf8baf3c79d443859/t/57278d9a8a65e2945ad67678/1462209948161/
MadPow_HCD_Overview.pdf
4
From expert interview

Message Design 7
Questions for discussion
VV How does theory inform message design?
VV Do various theories lead to different messages?
VV How are theory and formative data connected in message design?
VV How are channels and messages related?
VV What is public/stakeholder segmentation?
VV What are the advantages and disadvantages of human-centred design?

8 MODULE 7
Reading list
Atkin, C.K. & Rice, R. E. (2012). Theory and Principles of Public Communication
Campaigns. In Charles Atkin and Ronald Rice, Editors. Public Communication
Campaigns. SAGE.

Noar, S. M., N. G. Harrinton and R. S. Aldrich. 2009. The Role of Message Tailoring
in the Development of Persuasive Health Communication Messages, in Christina Beck,
Editor, Communication Yearbook 33.

Rogers, Everett and Douglas Storey. 1987. Communication Campaigns. In C. Berger

& S. Chaffee, Editors, Handbook of Communication Science (pp. 817–846). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.

Nabi, R. L. (2010). The case for emphasizing discrete emotions in communication

research. Communication Monographs, 77, 153-159.

Hinyard, L. J., & Kreuter, M. W. (2007). Using narrative communication as a tool

for health behavior change: A conceptual, theoretical and empirical overview. Health
Education & Behavior, 34, 777-792.

Appel, M., & Richter, T. (2010). Transportation and need for affect in narrative
persuasion. Media Psychology, 13, 101-135.

Banerjee, S. C., & Green, K. (2012). Role of transportation in the persuasion

process: Cognitive and affective responses to antidrug narratives. Journal of Health
Communication, 17, 564-581.

Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of
public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 701-721.

Green, M. C., Brock, T. C., & Kaufman, G. F. (2004). Understanding media enjoyment:
The role of transportation into narrative worlds: Communication Theory, 14, 311-327.

Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of

audiences with media characters. Mass Communication & Society, 4, 245-264.

Plus Acumen. An Introduction to Human Centred Design. https://static1.

squarespace.com/static/56780eeaa128e6372faf8ee3/t/578fa9f72e69cf811596e
4b0/1469032956005/Introduction+to+Human-Centred+Design.pdf

Message Design 9
Case studies

Waisbord, Silvio, Lora Shimp, Ellyn W. Ogden and Chris Morry. 2010.
Communication for Polio Eradication: Improving the Quality of Communication
Programming Through Real-Time Monitoring and Evaluation, Journal of Health
Communication 15 (1): 9-24.

Message Design for Kyunki Jeena Issi Ka Naam Hai – UNICEF, 2014
https://www.comminit.com/files/kyunkiprodbook_final.pdf

Bakker, F., Handayani, N. H., Minnick, E. & Syafitri, R. (2018). Human Centred Design
to Prevent Child Marriage in Indonesia, Journal of Development Communication, 29(1),
4-15. Retrieved from http://jdc.journals.unisel.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jdc/article/view/51.

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV Understand how theories are used in message design.

VV Understand problem-based message design.
VV Identify messages suitable for segmented audiences.
VV Explain the ideas of incentives and motivations in message design.
VV Develop messages based on data and theoretical arguments.

Lectures, small group discussions, debates and presentations

1. Based on specific programmatic objectives for a real or hypothetical project, groups
discuss possible messages for different audiences and present justifications based
on theoretical insights and data analysis.
2. Discuss how data and theory guided message design in polio immunization
campaigns in India.
3. Discuss incentives and motivations for specific populations to and how motivations
promote certain programmatic goals.

Unit assessment/evaluation methods

VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis and challenge
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

10 MODULE 7
MODULE 7A
UNIT 2

Message appeals

General introduction
Message appeal refers to the kind of argument made by specific messages in order to
elicit response/s from populations.

The kind of appeal to move population groups in a certain direction can be classified into
three types depending on the kind of expected response, namely awareness, instruction
and persuasion. Awareness appeals are aimed at informing people about what to do,
when, where and why. They may also encourage people to seek further information and
sensitize them to specific issues and problems. They basically seek to promote interest
or concern about a given issue and make them aware about the existence and scope of
the problem. Instruction appeals are intended to educate people about a certain issue –
what they need to do and how to help address/prevent/mitigate problems. Persuasive
appeals are aimed at convincing people on why they should adopt certain practices. The
specific appeal can be positive or negative based on whether it is assumed that either
one would be more effective in affecting beliefs that may promote action.

Message appeals are essentially about showing and tapping into incentives for action.
Ideally, they should tap existing values among a given population. To put it differently,
see what people care about already and if that may motivate them to learn, take action,
change attitudes and other possible goals. Appeals may affect the subjective calculation
about the prospects of something happening and affecting a given group. So, if people
come to believe that they are very likely to be affected by a problem and that the
effect could be significant, they are more likely to be motivated to take action. What
messages do, in this case, is to modify subjective expectations about the likelihood that
something may happen as well as the subjective perception about the magnitude of
the consequences. Here, one emphasizes a 'loss' frame which examines what people
would stand to lose if something happens with certain impact.

As part of this approach to message appeals, much has been studied about the impact
of fear appeals. Fear appeals are intended to motivate action by highlighting certain
threats that exist if people practice or refrain from practicing certain behaviours.
Typically, fear appeals combine information that emphasises negative physical/life

Message Design 11
consequences with highly emotional presentation. Fear appeals need to be used
carefully. They should not exaggerate threats and risks in case people do not find
them credible or if the actual risk is significantly less powerful. People may tune out or
act defensively if they believe that messages actually exaggerate the consequences.
Studies show that, if used strategically, fear appeals can be effective, especially if they
provide people with specific directions/instructions about preventive measures – what
they need to do to mitigate the chances of being harmed.

A different kind of appeal stresses positive motivations – good, desirable incentives

instead of fear and risk. What is important is to understand what people desire enough
to be motivated to take action, gain social acceptability and trust from loved ones,
conforming with social norms and so on. Appeals also highlight economic benefits,
health, time savings, psychological and other consequences that may be deemed
important by specific groups.

Designing message appeals on the basis of understanding what drives people to action
and what motivates them – it is crucial to avoid common messaging that, while focused
on 'technical' questions (e.g. consequences of vaccination, schooling, healthy foods)
do not sufficiently foreground 'social' motivations. Too often, it is assumed that people
would do something because they care about health, education, the environment and
other issues. However, experiences actually show that people typically are moved to
learning, knowing, changing and /or acting out of social 'incentives'.

Another important line of inquiry in message appeals is that of framing. Framing refers
to how messages make some aspects of a given problem/issue salient. In other words,
how they emphasise certain ways of understating and approaching a given issue. Any
development issue can be understood in multiple ways. What message frames do is to
encourage populations to see them in certain ways, in terms of causes and solutions.
Poor child nutrition can be seen as a matter of a mothers’ responsibility, community
resources, food costs, policies, subsidies and so on. Depending on what kind of action
is expected, message frames emphasise certain dimensions at the expense of others.
They can highlight internal or external factors to prompt attention, interest and action.

Finally, a key issue is how certain message appeals are constructed – the combination
of visual, words and sounds that are put together to anchor a certain appeal. These
resources need to be culturally sensitive and mindful of different ways in which they
could be interpreted, either individually or collectively.

12 MODULE 7
Questions for discussion
VV What are message appeals?
VV What are the goals of message appeals?
VV What are examples of message appeals?
VV Why do messages appeal?
VV Are there certain types of messages that seemingly 'work' in all circumstances?
VV How are message appeals decided?
VV Why are fear appeals used widely? What are their strengths and limitations?
VV What is message framing?

Message Design 13
Reading list
VV Atkin, Charles. Theory and Principles of Media Health Campaigns, in Charles
Atkin and Ronald Rice, Editors, Public Communication Campaigns, 4th Edition.
Sage.
VV Yzer, MC and BG Southwell. 2012. Inducing Fear as a Public Communication
Campaign Strategy, in Charles Atkin and Ronald Rice, Editors, Public
Communication Campaigns, 4th Edition. Sage.
VV Tahir Turk, Nandita Murukutla, Shefali Gupta, Jagdish Kaur, Sandra Mullin,
Ranjana Saradhi and Pankaj Chaturvedi. 2012. Using a smokeless tobacco
control mass media campaign and other synergistic elements to address social
inequalities in India, Cancer causes and control 23 (1): 81-90

Supplementary reading
VV https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320164730_Humor_and_fear_appeals_
in_public_service_announcements_discourse
VV http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/7341/Emotional_appeals_in_social_marketing
VV Sandhu, N. & Singh, Jaspal (2011). Impact of Television Commercials on the
Social and Moral Behavior of Indian Viewers – Empirical Evidence. Centre for
Promoting Ideas, USA, The Special Issue on Behavioral and Social Science.

Case studies
VV 'Better late than never' campaign Rüdiger Schmitt-Beck. Better Late Than
Never: Campaign Deciders at the 2005 German Parliamentary Election.
2009. http://dgfw.info/dok/papers/Schmitt-Beck2009-ECPR_LateDeciders.pdf
VV JagoGrahakJago Campaign http://india.gov.in/spotlight/jago-grahak-jago-
empowering-consumers#tab=tab-1
VV Anti-smoking campaign James Mahoney. Strategic communication and
anti-smoking campaigns. University of Canberra. http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/
journals/index.php/pcr/article/viewFile/1868/1915
VV Balbir pasha ko AIDS hoga kya?
https://www.thensmc.com/sites/default/files/Will%20Balbir%20Pasha%20
Get%20AIDS%20FULL%20case%20study.pdf

14 MODULE 7
Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV Understand the uses of data and theory in message appeals.

VV Undertake critical review of message appeals in terms of programmatic
objectives and characteristics of selected population groups/stakeholders.
VV Demonstrate strategic thinking by drafting illustrative samples of message
appeals.

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

1. Group analysis of message appeals of case study to assess strategic justification and
effectiveness.
2. Group discussion of possible message appeals to use in a programme and offer
justification as to why certain appeals may be more appropriate.
3. Content analysis of programme materials to identify type of message appeals used.
4. Discuss a social marketing campaign or a recent public service ad campaign that
uses mixed message appeals, e.g. fear with humour.

Unit assessment/evaluation methods

VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis and challenge
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

Message Design 15
MODULE 7A
UNIT 3

Message treatments and formats

General introduction
Formats refer to two dimensions of 'how' the message will be presented to specific
populations. The same message can be displayed in different ways and through multiple
platforms/channels/places and it can be 'delivered' by various sources and styles of
presentation.

Evidence does not allow us to draw categorical conclusions about whether certain
formats such as radio, digital media and posters are more effective than others. In fact,
this question cannot be answered in the abstract. Innovative thoughts and common-
sense are needed to select the appropriate formats. What matters is to identify
platforms that people use every day for exchanging information on a range of issues
(not only the specific issues addressed by the programme). Also, identify other places
where people can be exposed to and discuss messages with others. So, identifying
platforms commonly used is a rule of thumb to decide whether they are appropriate.
This should not be narrowly identified with 'mass media' (print, broadcasting and
digital), but more broadly in terms of public spaces (open-air markets, schools, streets,
billboards, means of transportation, clothing, etc.) and private spaces (cafes, bars, hair
salons, clubs) that could become a vehicle for messaging. Ambient media illustrates this
method of communication. Focused in areas which garner lots of attention, advertising
and messaging of this form can be encountered on a regular basis. For example,
messages printed along staircases or doors of elevators, on handles of train carriages
and sides of buildings. The selection is contingent on the communication preferences
of the population segment. This is why understanding daily communicative habits are
critical to identifying possible spots/channels that may not otherwise be obvious.

One issue to consider is whether single or multiple platforms should be used to

maximise reach, intensity and duration. Research is not conclusive about these
questions since answers depend on specific characteristics of the programme,
populations and objectives. Programmes should be mindful of the twin problems of
weak presence and saturation of messages essentially because both present problems
for effectiveness. Endless repetition does not ensure understanding, recall or actions.

16 MODULE 7
Weak visibility makes it difficult to reach out to populations. The same conclusion
is applied to frequency. Frequent messages may result in populations tuning out or
becoming inoculated to the intended meaning and actions, but sporadic messages may
not generate the kind of momentum recall and behavioural cues that may encourage
significant changes.

Formats also refer to the way the message is delivered. This refers to messages
that are essentially factual or narrative. Factual messages feature basic data about
the issue at stake, with the hope that plain information would encourage people to
change attitudes and actions. Narrative refers to storytelling which brings out plots and
stories that may make the message memorable. Again, there are no shortcuts or easy
conclusions to understanding this topic, as the selection is contingent on the population,
communicative styles, 'stages of behaviour change' and particular context (political,
cultural) of a given group and so on. For example, when populations have increased risk
perception about a certain problem, straight facts can be sufficient to promote actions.
Instead, when risk perception is low, other formats may be needed to encourage
attention and action. Typically, preparing factual messages demand less work and
human resources even though they need to be vetted by experts to ensure accuracy.
Narratives, instead, demand the contributions from specialists who can produce
compelling, interesting and resonant stories.

A field worth exploring in understanding efficient paths of communication is integrated

mediated communication. Computer mediated communication, or simply mediated
communication, is described as text-based or symbol-reliant. This is different from face-
to-face communication which is supported by a collection of non-verbal cues, such as
posture and facial expression. Both models differ in the processing and interpretation
of information with respect to cognition. At the intersection of these concepts, timed
with increased dispersion of smartphone usage, emoticons have been studied as an
integrated approach to mediated communication. Research concludes that they offer
a greater social and emotional tone of text-based channels by delivering expressivity.
Integrated mediated communication therefore remains a powerful resource to spread a
message that merges a personal and technological approach.

Another important consideration is to see who delivers the message – the

spokesperson/celebrity and/or source. Certainly, this selection widely varies depending
on the needs of the programme, population characteristics and opportunities.
Approaches that focus on interpersonal communication may select sources that are
known and/or trusted by specific population groups such as local leaders, health
workers, opinion leaders, spouses/relatives and neighbours. Media campaigns, instead,
rely on high-profile individuals who can increase the visibility and recall of messages by
virtue of their name recognition and ability to stand out and attract broad attention.

Message Design 17
With the emphasis on target populations and context, we can consider the Kan Khujura
Tesan campaign that was launched by Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL). India’s leading
FMCG company recognised a media blind spot in one of their largest rural markets in
Bihar. Motivated to circumvent the poor access to television and newspapers and the
media-dark nature of the state, they initiated a free on-demand mobile radio station in
2014. The service required the customers to give a missed call to a specific number,
after which they would get a call back. It featured free entertainment services like jokes,
music and news. The content was heavily branded, interspersed with advertising. The
platform was an enormous success as it reached 8 million customers within its first 6
months of launch. HUL generated valuable data regarding the use of the platform. They
could identify trends in call frequency, repeat callers and the points at which listeners
decided to hang up, to develop their communication strategy.

Questions for discussion

VV What are message formats?
VV What are the different types of formats?
VV Why do formats matter in message design?
VV Share examples of appropriate message formats in terms of specific
programmatic objectives and public/stakeholders?
VV Discuss some advantages and disadvantages of newer message formats such as
ambient media or integrated mediated communication.

18 MODULE 7
Reading list
Abraham, Charles and Marieke Kools, Editors. Writing Health Communication: An
Evidence Based-Guide. SAGE.

UNICEF 2013, An Entertainment-Education Radio Initiative, Meena Ki Duniya,

The Production Process http://www.kcci.org.in/_layouts/ContentManagement/
KnowledgeRepository.aspx?Theme=Communication

UNICEF 2013, Kyunki Jeena Isi Ka Nam Hai Teleserial, A Glimpse into the Production
Process http://www.kcci.org.in/_layouts/ContentManagement/KnowledgeRepository.
aspx?Theme=Communication

Aldunate, N. and González-Ibáñez, R. (2017). An Integrated Review of Emoticons in

Computer-Mediated Communication. Frontiers in Psychology, 7.

Case studies
Ramachandran, Divya, Vivek Goswami and John Canny. 2010. Research and reality:
using mobile messages to promote maternal health in rural India.

http://www.openideo.com/open/maternal-health/concepting/portable-maternal-health-
video-library-for-community-health-workers/gallery/using-mobile-messages-to-promote-
maternal-health-in-rural-india.pdf/

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV Identify message formats.

VV Select suitable message formats in terms of programmatic objectives.
VV Critically review message formats used by C4D programmes.
VV Develop innovative and creative message formats.

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

1. Thematic analysis of message formats of a C4D programme to assess suitability in
terms of programmatic objectives and selected public population groups. Offer an
alternative format that could have been used for similar objectives.
2. Identify suitable message formats for 'hard-to-reach' audiences that are not
integrated into conventional media systems for specific development programmes
(e.g. immunization, malaria control).
3. Identify the strengths and limitations of mobile telephony formats for effective
messaging in terms of specific objectives and public population groups.

Message Design 19
Unit assessment/evaluation methods
VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis and challenges
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

20 MODULE 7
MODULE 7A
UNIT 4

Message (and relative media) development

General introduction
Messaging is an iterative process of creating, disseminating and sharing meaning.
Message content should draw from data collected in formative research. It is not based
on what experts believe are powerful, persuasive arguments, but based on theoretical
insights and information about key populations.

Several issues need to be considered for successful messages during the development
phase. Once the key population groups are defined, it is necessary to identify relevant
concepts based on knowledge about salient issues (what matters to people). Relevant
concepts are the core of the messages that include stimuli, motivational cues and
assessment of context and other factors (organisational, cultural).

The concept of 'stimuli' refers to factors that encourage populations to pay attention to
the message - why would the message stand out among the plethora of messages that
typically surround people. If the message is not salient, it is unlikely that people would
attend, assimilate and recall. Getting people’s attention is certainly not easy, particularly
as they are subjected to all kinds of stimuli from interpersonal to mediated messages.
In selecting messages that may be effective, it is important to consider different ways
to capture attention such as humour, fear, facts, language, slogans, suspense, fear,
wordplay, visuals and other factors that determine whether people pay attention and
recall key ideas.

'Motivational cues' is what is assumed would persuade people to act. It features the
appeals that are considered potentially persuasive such as perceived fear, severity of
problem, susceptibility to being affected by a problem, existing threats, benefits from
acting and other motivational factors.

'Context assessment' alludes to the environment and resources that could be

mobilised and need to be considered as they affect message impact. Issues include
people’s perceived efficacy (self and collective), subjective and objective norms and

Message Design 21
beliefs about barriers and motivations to action. A critical consideration is cultural
factors, such as local values promoting or discouraging specific actions. Messages
that carefully considered cultural contexts are more likely to be effective in terms of
recall, understanding and action if they integrate issues such as rules, beliefs, power,
spirituality, gender roles, socio-economic differences and education.

The human-centred design process of message development considers the importance

of context assessment and broadly involves the following steps:

1. Observation: The first step involves observing the beneficiary populations to identify
patterns of behaviour, underlying beliefs and pain points. This can be done through
various means including, but not limited to, in-depth interviews, focus group
discussions, or literature reviews.
2. Ideation: Based on insights from the observation stage, this stage involves
brainstorming as many message ideas as possible.
3. Rapid prototyping: The next step is to develop simple prototypes of the message so
that the beneficiaries can give feedback on tangible (even if rough) message designs.
4. Feedback: This is the most critical stage of the development process as it is focused
on understanding directly from the beneficiary whether the message is on target,
relatable and effective.
5. Iteration: In this stage, feedback from the beneficiaries is incorporated to optimise
the messages.
6. Implementation: Finally, once the message has been validated by the beneficiaries,
it can be moved to the implementation stage which involves various steps including
target populations, delivery channels and message formats.5

It is important to note here that, as of now, the HCD process has been mainly used to
develop products and solutions rather than messages. However, it also has the potential
to improve the message development process to design communication strategies that
are appealing and effective.

Another similar process of message development is the ADDIE method which stands
for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation.6

Beyond understanding various aspects of a message as well as development

processes, messages should have the following requisites: they need to be clear to
ensure that population groups understand them, with a few, if any, technical/scientific
terms; are consistent to avoid confusion and misunderstanding; focused to avoid
ambiguous interpretations; appealing to the intended group; and are honest and truthful.

5
https://www.usertesting.com/blog/how-ideo-uses-customer-insights-to-design-innovative-products-users-love/
6
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/addie/

22 MODULE 7
Once the key concepts are identified and message drafts have been elaborated, it is
necessary to review and summarise the information by asking the following questions:

VV Why would people pay attention to the message? Would they be interested?
VV What is the right tone to address specific populations?
VV Who is the source of the message?
VV What is the appeal?
VV Would people be motivated to engage in change?
VV Does the message address barriers to actions and ways to overcome them?
VV Is the message clear in terms of what is expected? What are the actionable
points?
VV Does the message resonate with the diverse groups within the population? Would
they agree?
VV Is the message consistent?
VV Does the message tap into existing values?
VV Why would people be receptive to the message?
VV What existing ideas are retrieved by messages to lead to action?

Answers to these questions should be summarised in a creative brief that provides

a summary of the key components of the messages and guides the selection and
production of materials.

Questions for discussion

VV What are the key components of message development?
VV What factors should be considered to determine the key message content?
VV What information should guide the analysis?
VV Why are the 'technical' messages insufficient for persuasive action?
VV Why are messages unlikely to be similarly effective across populations?
VV What factors make messages salient?
VV What are the similarities and differences between the HCD process of message
development and the ADDIE model? Analyse the effectiveness of one process
vis-a-vis the other.

Message Design 23
Reading list
Dutta, Mohan. 2008. Communicating Health: A Culture-centred Approach. Cambridge:
Polity, chapter 1.

Murray-Johnson, Lisa and Kim Witte. 2003. Looking Toward the Future: Health
Message Design Strategies, in Teresa L. Thompson, Routledge Handbook of Health
Communication. New York: Routledge.

Schiavo, Renata. 2007. Health Communication: From Theory to Practice. Wiley.

Chapters 7 and 8.

Maguire, M. (2001). Methods to support human-centred design. International Journal of

Human-Computer Studies, 55(4), pp.587-634.

https://www.marketing-partners.com/conversations2/a-3-step-guide-to-message-triangles/

Case studies
UNICEF 2013, An entertainment-education radio initiative, Meena Ki Duniya,
The Production Process http://www.kcci.org.in/_layouts/ContentManagement/
KnowledgeRepository.aspx?Theme=Communication

UNICEF 2013, Kyunki Jeena Isi Ka Nam Hai Teleserial, A Glimpse into the Production
Process

http://www.kcci.org.in/_layouts/ContentManagement/KnowledgeRepository.
aspx?Theme=Communication

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:
VV Understand critical components of message development.
VV Know the importance of motivational cues and benefits.
VV Know 'contextual factors' that need to be addressed in messages.
VV Identify suitable spokesperson for various public/stakeholders.
VV Design messages that foreground different appeals.

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

1. Group discussion of motivational cues in messages developed/used by various C4D
programmes. Discuss strengths and limitations of various messages in terms of their
intended publics/ and objectives.
2. Develop a set of arguments to persuade 'technical' experts about social aspects of
messages that need to be integrated. Let us assume that technical experts are not
familiar or are not convinced that contextual factors, motivational cues and other
aspects need to be salient in messages and that they prefer that messages are

24 MODULE 7
 solely focused on technical aspects (public health, agricultural, educational). Draft a
set of arguments and a 'role play' debate about the pros and cons of messages.
3. Design a message development plan keeping in mind a specific behavioural problem
(e.g. low uptake of IFA pill among adolescent girls) using either the ADDIE model or
the HCD process.

Unit assessment/evaluation methods

VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis and challenge
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

Message Design 25
MODULE 7A
UNIT 5

Message testing

General introduction
Messages need to be validated to ensure they are appealing, understood and have the
potential to motivate people to action. Testing is a type of formative evaluation that
takes place once the programme is well under way. Key issues to consider are whether
the messages are relevant, clear, attractive, get attention, memorable, credible,
resonate with key populations and are acceptable. Here, every component of the
message should be tested in terms of words, images, appeal and format.

Various methods can be used to test messages. Commonly used methods include,
self‑administered questionnaires, intercept interviews in central public spaces, focus
groups and gatekeeper reviews.

Self-administered questionnaires allow programmes to elicit detailed information

that may not be easily accessible, keep anonymity, have time to think carefully about
answers and be responded by several people at the same time. Depending on local
conditions, they can be administered in different spaces (public and private) and through
different methods (personal, mail, electronic mail). One advantage is that they are not
expensive and can reach a good number of people. Questionnaires should be short
and piloted before they are widely distributed to ensure that they are helpful to get the
information needed to assess the relevance of the messages. They need to be clear as
there is no interviewer present to assist the respondents. In terms of question design,
open-ended questions may provide more information but would require more time for
analysis. Multiple-choice questions are easier to evaluate, but they may not provide
nuanced information to assess the quality of the message. Experience shows that self-
administered questionnaires may have low response rate, so it is important to distribute
a good quantity to ensure a respectable number of returned answers. Also, the type of
respondents willing to fill out questionnaires, may not reflect the intended population. It
is therefore important to determine if the sample of effective answers is representative
of the population.

Intercept interviews in central public spaces require deploying interviews in streets,

markets, squares, hospitals, bus stations, fairs and other locations to ask people to

26 MODULE 7
'pre-test' messages. The advantages of this method are the ability to gather input
from a significant number of people in a relatively short period of time and to reach
groups that reflect the intended population segments. It is a low-cost method to
gather information. The interviews should be brief and offer multiple-choice answers to
expedite the interview and data analysis. Since most of us are on-the go, we are unlikely
to have a significant amount of time. Open-ended questions therefore should be few,
covering the following topics: understanding, relevance, credibility recall and motivation.
Depending on the site, the programme may need to seek official permission. The
number of interviews should depend on the complexity of the issue and responses.
Typically, if a certain number of responses (between 30 and 40) give similar answers
and clear patterns, that should be sufficient.

Focus group discussion is a method to gain insights into how a given group reacts to a
certain topic, in this case, messages. The size should be between 6 and 10. They are
moderated by someone with experience in the technique (and preferably the subject, as
well) who facilitates questions and encourages respondents to engage in a comfortable
and free-flowing conversation. The moderator should probe for reactions and thoughts
that may necessarily be spontaneously volunteered by the participants. Focus groups
are useful to identify reactions, questions, misperceptions and attitudes. In contrast to
questionnaires and surveys, they provide more in-depth knowledge about the interaction
between groups and messages. Participants should not know each other and nor should
they be experts in the subject, but should reflect the intended population.

Gatekeeper Review is a technique used to testing conducted with informants who

know the 'target' population and may provide valuable insights about how that
population reacts to messages. They do not provide 'technical' assessments, but
rather, offer ideas into the social, cultural, informational/, or educational aspects of the
population that may (or may not) resonate with the message drafts. Here individual
meetings or groups discussions with the gatekeeper can be used. Questions to be
asked include: How do you think a specific group will react to this message? Are there
any aspects of the message that are complex, sensitive, controversial and hard to
understand? Are people’s motivations sufficiently emphasised? What mistakes can be
made? Typically, this method is helpful yet insufficient to test messages and formats
and should be supplemented with data from other methods.

Representative testing involves generating a sample of people as closely representative

of the entire population as one can get. This is ideally achieved through randomly
sampling members. However, in practice, researchers aim to get a group that is not
biased or skewed towards a demographic—for example,ensuring an equal distribution
of men and women. Target population testing is required when the research calls for a
demographic, wherein the sample is purposefully selected from the population.

Message Design 27
To elaborate, suppose a message is to be modified and presented so as to cater to
school children between the age of 8 and 12, testing methodologies will be used
for a sample of exactly that demographic to gauge specific insights about their
target audience.

An up-and-coming iterative approach to message testing is 'responsive feedback' or

'feedback loops'. This involves getting timely and actionable feedback on messages that
have already been implemented in order to course-correct and optimise. Interventions
informed by Responsive Feedback Mechanisms (RFMs) are:

1. Agile and flexible so that changes can be quickly captured based on feedback
received
2. Adaptive to feedback
3. Iterative because one message will be subject to multiple rounds of feedback
loops throughout implementation

Currently, RFMs have not been used much due to challenges such as inflexible
implementation timelines, lack of adequate resources, limited skills amongst existing
professionals to implement RFMs and expense. However, RFMs will increasingly
become integral to the message testing process as there is a shift among development
practitioners towards participatory, actionable and adaptive testing.

Increasingly, quantitative methods are being employed to test messaging at the concept
stage rather than for fully developed rough drafts. For instance, advertising firms,
television networks and other content providers such as film-makers are increasingly
using techniques such as prediction markets, implicit testing and neuroscience–based
methods to test hundreds of concepts before zeroing in on a few. These few are then
developed into pilots or rough animatics to further field test with target audiences
before the final message or content is developed.

Information gathered from these methods need to be used to refine and adjust
messages in ways that reflect the concerns that were raised. It is also suggested that
revised versions are tested to ensure they adequately address the problems identified in
the original testing. In order to define the messages, it is necessary to assess whether
they command attention; are clear, simple and direct; communicate benefits; are
consistent; build trust/are embedded in local expectations and norms; and call to action
with concrete, doable steps.

28 MODULE 7
Questions for discussion
VV What is the purpose of message testing?
VV What are the key steps of message testing?
VV What methodologies can be used for message testing? What are their
comparative strengths and limitations?
VV How are the findings from message testing used?

Message Design 29
Reading list
C-Change. 2012. C-Modules: A Learning Package for Social and Behaviour Change
Communication. http://www.c-hubonline.org/resources/c-modules-learning-package-
social-and-behavior-change-communication, Units 3 and 4.

Viswanath K., Synowiec C. & Agha S. (2019) Responsive feedback: Towards a new
paradigm to enhance intervention effectiveness [version 1; peer review: 4 approved].
Gates Open Res, 3:781

Case studies
Anjali Monteiro. 1998. Official Television and Unofficial Fabrications of Self: The
spectator as subject, in Ashish Nandy, Secret Politics of Our Desires: Innocence,
Culpability and Popular Cinema. New Delhi and London: Oxford University Press and
London Zed Press.

National Integration Spot on Doordarshan "Freedom Run: The Torch Song", in

which famous sportspersons participated and was found to be obscene because of the
skimpy outfits of the women sportspersons.

Anjali Monteiro. 1998 Freedom Run: The Torch Song from Doordarshan http://8ate.
blogspot.in/2008/02/freedom-run-torch-song-from-doordarshan.html

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV What is the purpose of message testing?

VV What methods can be used for message testing?
VV What information should be gathered in the testing process?
VV How is that information used?
VV What aspects of messages should be verified once the testing data are
incorporated and messages are adjusted?

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

Groups conduct message testing by assessing the accuracy and relevance of message.
They should either choose existing messages from C4D programmes, or based on
previous work, design messages with specific objective for public/stakeholders. After
testing, produce recommendations or changes/adjustments based on the findings.

30 MODULE 7
Unit assessment/evaluation methods
VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis and challenge
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

Message Design 31
MODULE 7A
UNIT 6

Material production

General introduction
The first step for material production is to develop a creative brief – a short description
that summarises the information gathered in the previous steps of message design
needed to guide the development of the materials. The same brief could be used for
the production of various materials (print, broadcast, digital) if they deal with the same
objectives and publics/stakeholders. Creative briefs are also common guides for action
that result from dialogues and consensus among partners. Typically, creative briefs
include the following sections: objectives/intended publics (including primary, secondary
and tertiary); expected changes/obstacles; message (promise, support statement, call to
action, impression); content and tone; and media mix.

The production of some materials (e.g. radio/television spots, comics) requires the
elaboration of 'storyboard' which feature the core components of the story/messages.
As discussed in message format section, storytelling is central to the way people
communicate across cultures. Thus, telling stories/narratives may be compelling forms
to put messages forward. They can be factual/fictional, include characters, drama,
personal experience, well-known stories, interactive. They need to be designed with the
intended public in mind and use written and visual language that is deemed appropriate.
Typically, they should have limited number of ideas/concept, stimulate dialogue/reaction,
feature culturally relevant themes/words.

Based on the 'creative briefs', the next step is to decide what materials are needed
depending on the communication approaches and objectives previously selected.
One key step here is to assess whether there are already materials that could be
adapted based on the strategic needs of the programme as identified in the brief.
Material adaptation may save time and resources. It is the process of modifying existing
materials for various publics/stakeholders and objectives. Sometimes, parts of the
existing materials (e.g. language, artwork) may be used/adapted as well as messages
used in different contexts/cultures.

Based on the creative brief, it is necessary to select suitable materials. Materials

include print (posters, pamphlet, comics, booklets, documents/reports), broadcasting
spots (announcements), and merchandising (t-shirt, novelties, souvenirs) that can be

32 MODULE 7
eventually produced in different physical materials or digitally (press releases, mobile
reminders). The selection of materials depends on the communication approaches and
population characteristics. Depending on the material selected (print, audio, video),
different criteria need to be kept in mind. Print materials, for example, need to display
the important points first; clear actionable points, minimal number of words, short
words and sentences, use active voice, use images to reinforce/anchor words and
viceversa.

The next step is to design and pre-produce mock-ups of materials for various channels/
platforms. Material producers should produce drafts that should be considered for
testing to ensure their strengths and weakness, relevance, suitability and ease of use/
access. This is a particularly critical step given that material production can be costly.
To avoid mistakes, it is important to test materials before final productions by using
mock-ups and illustrative samples. Drafts should be as close as possible to the intended
final version without expensive production costs. Partners would need to review and
discuss mock-ups to decide which one/s should be moved to pre-production and
testing. Depending on costs, more than one may be necessary to assess the strengths
and limitations of various possibilities. Just like with message testing, after materials
are designed, it is necessary to test them with the intended publics/audiences to ensure
that they are relevant and appropriate. Here it is necessary to identify with whom the
material drafts need to be tested, what methodologies should be used and testing plans
and adjustments.

Questions for discussion

VV What is the purpose of the creative brief? How are they related to material
production?
VV What are the components of the creative briefs?
VV What are examples of adequate materials for selected publics/stakeholders and
programmatic objectives?
VV What are the different requirements for various materials/formats?

Message Design 33
Reading list
C-Change. 2012. C-Modules: A Learning Package for Social and Behavior Change
Communication. http://www.c-hubonline.org/resources/c-modules-learning-package-
social-and-behavior-change-communication, Units 3 and 4.

C-Change. 2012. http://www.c-hubonline.org/sites/default/files/resources/main/VMMC-

Communication-Materials-Adaptation-Guide%203.2.12.pdf

PATH/FHI/USAID. D  eveloping materials on HIV/AIDS/STI for low-literate population. 2002.

http://www.fhi360.org/NR/rdonlyres/e2q7um2s2ffrtcjeesnjqhrgrt4bqawhrjqfreho2z23rc7
lpxiuny3kekvsed4lg3sn5ocrpua3jn/lowlitguide2.pdf

Case studies
Paul Suggett, How to Write a Creative Brief http://advertising.about.com/od/
tipoftheweek/ht/How-To-Write-A-Creative-Brief.htm

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV Identify components of creative briefs

VV Understand how brief guided material production
VV Produce creative brief
VV Critical analysis of materials

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

1. Group analysis of creative brief to discuss whether it provides a comprehensive
summary of necessary information for material production.
2. Group analysis of communication materials for a C4D programme. The exercise
should be focused on 'reverse engineering'/'working backwards' planning process:
intended publics (who is it for), expected actions and ways to overcome obstacles,
message characteristics, tone, relevant platforms/channels. Groups present results
of their deliberations and the class comments on their assessments.

Unit assesment/evaluation methods

VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis and challenge
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

34 MODULE 7
MODULE 7B
UNIT 1

Identify themes for dialogue/IPC

General introduction
Unlike informational approaches to message design that basically limit the role of
community members to specific instances (such as formative research and message
testing), community dialogue (CD) approaches to the identification of the themes
for C4D are premised on the notions of participation, self-determination and local
ownership. Messages are not designed by experts based on the data about publics/
stakeholders’ preferences and incentives with sporadic input from communities, but
rather, they are defined as 'themes' that emerged during CD. There are no 'message
experts',instead, communities the themselves define the themes through a dialogic,
critical process.

The purpose of CD is to provide spaces for democratic expression and social

connectivity that build trust and respect. CD consists of regular forums that draw
participants to exchange information, share experiences, identify problems and develop
solutions to common concerns. What is unique about this approach is that it is aimed
at eliciting ideas, promote listening and encouraging collective understanding of the
situation. It is a way of building a sense of common learning and action towards
common goals. This is why dialogue is not simply about assessing problems or
expressing personal views and stories. It is a platform for reasoned conversations
and action and finding points of contact among people and shared viewpoints. It is a
mechanism for people to recognise and address their differences in order to move
forward by building relationships and common goals.

The goal is to have 'safe' spaces for people to express their views, particularly
those who are disempowered and are likely to feel comfortable communicating with
others about sensitive matters. Dialogues could be tag to existing forms of collective
conversations (e.g. workplaces, community talks in schools and clinics, youth clubs)
and public spaces (parks, streets, markets), or in separate spaces with specific
meeting times.

Message Design 35
In summary, fostering spaces for communities to discuss their concerns is a
powerful mechanism for bringing people together. Dialogues are more informal,
open-ended and moderated discussions that can take place in various spaces such
as markets, schools and offices. The purpose is to identify concerns and collective
problem-solving.

Questions for discussion

VV What are the principles of community dialogue?
VV What are the indicators of success?
VV What are the requirements for successful dialogue?
VV Does community dialogue operate by consensus or simple majority? Why?
VV What are potential problems for community dialogue? How can they be
overcome?
VV How does community dialogue contribute to the identification of suitable
themes?

36 MODULE 7
Reading list
Canada’s Rural Partnership. C
 ommunity Dialogue Adapted from Community Dialogue
Toolkit www.rural.gc.ca

Gender-Based Violence Network. 1999. C  ommunity Dialogue Guide Men and Women
Joining Hands to Prevent Violence and HIV/AIDS.

Holloway, David. 2004. A Practical Guide to Dialogue. The Community Dialogue Critical
Issues Series: Volume Two.

Case studies
UNICEF 2010, Kyunki Jeena Isi ka naam hai, Ammaji Kehti Hain, Facilitator’s Guidebook
for Group Discussion, Facts for life videos series

Oken Jeet Sandham. Communitization of Institutions in Nagaland. http://www.e-

pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=news_section.opinions.Communitization_of_
Institutions_in_Nagaland

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV Identify the principles of community dialogue

VV Understand how community dialogue contributes to theme identification
VV Design community dialogue activities
VV Analyse community dialogue proceedings
VV Assess the uses of community dialogue for C4D

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

1. Groups will perform a 'role play' on community dialogues. They should identify a
community and an issue, designate one or two moderators and conduct dialogue
in front of the class. Then, the class will discuss the experience in terms of the
principles of community dialogue and the identification of themes, as well as the
performance of the moderator.
2. Group analysis of a case study of community dialogue to assess its strengths in
terms of the identification of relevant themes.
3. Comparative analysis of informational approaches to message design and
community dialogue and their applicability to a specific case. How would these two
approaches go about the identification of 'messages' and 'themes' for C4D?

Message Design 37
Unit assessment/evaluation methods
VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

38 MODULE 7
MODULE 7B
UNIT 2

Develop IPC and other dialogue-based

methods

General introduction
CD demands specific tools and techniques to facilitate conversations and foster
critical skills to identify problems and solutions. Methods need to be sensitive to local
communication preferences and language and be flexible to adapt to demands and
requirements. For example, some tools may be valuable to energize and build trust
among participants, spark conversations, discover information, promote consensus
and move the dialogue towards conclusions and actionable points.

All methods have their strengths and limitations or biases. Therefore, it is important
to understand when certain methods may be applicable and be aware of the type
of information that they may produce. Visual tools such as mapping exercises, may
be useful to identify specific sites, actions and resources. Transect walks allow for
collective identification of issues and conditions that produce needs assessments.
Communication networks offer insights into social networks for understanding
when and how people talk about specific issues and the role of key influencers
and opinion leaders.

CD methods require the participation of local facilitators who are deemed to be trusted
and considered to have impartial voices by community members. They are trained on
both conversational methods/moderation as well as specific technical matters to be able
to guide/move the conversation. Moderators are not technical experts – rather, they
are individuals who can ably steer the conversations, understand people’s concerns,
integrate people’s views in the dialogue and create a pleasant and safe atmosphere for
people to participate.

CD requires special materials that can be used to promote conversations, elicit opinions
and reach agreements. Materials may include comic books, leaflets, fact sheets,
posters, discussion cubes, cards and others. They may be designed with specific goals
in mind, or can be more generic. Participatory design of the materials can be helpful
as a previous step to the actual dialogue to assess suitable materials, images and
words/phrases.

Message Design 39
Typical approaches identify several steps for successful community dialogue.

VV Recognise a problem. Here the purpose is to understand how problems are

recognised, what prompts people to think that something needs public attention.
VV Communicating concerns. What happens once someone raises questions or
expresses concerns about problems – who gets involve? What are the channels
of communication? Who defines something as a problem?
VV Clarify perceptions and beliefs about concerns/problems. The purpose is to
develop a common framework to understand/interpret the situation – What is
happening? What are the causes? What are the various ways of making sense
of the situation?
VV Ensuring wide expression of views. It is important to ensure that multiples
views are expressed to avoid problem definition that reflects particular, narrow
concerns. Whose views need to be integrated? Whose voices are central? How
is it possible to involve different community members?
VV Scope of the problem. Community members should understand the scope,
magnitude and urgency of the problem at stake.
VV Envisioning solutions. The goal is to develop a common sense of shared future
that address concerns/problems previously identified. What kind of solution/
community reflects widely shared beliefs and desires?
VV Setting objectives. Communities define expectations and objectives based on
common concerns, resources and priorities. It is important that the goals reflect
wide expectations and demands and are sensitive to the broad needs and
priorities already in place.
VV Options for action. This step deals with identifying possible courses of action
based on community resources and opportunities. What to do? Why? What are
the alternatives? Why certain actions are best-suited given the goals and other
circumstances?
VV Consensus and plan for action. After options are identified, communities need to
come together around actions that truly reflect their needs. It is important that
selected actions are supported to ensure ownership and commitment across
various sectors of the population. Actions need to be organised in time sequence
and appropriately organised on the basis of priorities and other considerations.

40 MODULE 7
Questions for discussion
VV What are the methods used in community dialogue?
VV What are their strengths in terms of the principles of community dialogue?
VV How are they useful to define dialogue themes?
VV What are the requirements for community dialogue moderators?
VV What kind of knowledge and conversations can be promoted through the use of
various methods?

Message Design 41
Reading list
Chike Anyaegbunam, Paolo Mefalopulosand Titus Moetsabi. 2004. P  articipatory
rural communication appraisal: A Handbook. SADC Centre of Communication
for Development

Dutta, Mohan Jyoti and Ambar Basu. 2007. Health Among Men in Rural Bengal:
Exploring Meanings Through a Culture-Centered Approach, Qualitative Health Research
17 (1): 38-48.

Saydie, Anthony and Andrew Chetley. 2009. Sexual-health communication across

and within cultures: the Clown Project, Guatemala, Development in Practice 19 (4-5):
560‑572.

Case studies
UNICEF. 2009. F  ield Notes: Community approaches to total sanitation. http://www.
unicef.org/innovations/files/CATS_field_note.pdf

Learning activities
The learning activities should be aimed at developing the following competencies:

VV Identify examples of methods used in community dialogue

VV Understand the uses of various CD methods
VV Use CD methods
VV Analyse data produced by using different CD methods

Lectures, small group discussions/activities

1. Group review of data produced using various CD methods to determine the process
of data gathering and analysis. Discuss how the data are used for assessing
situations/problems and identifying courses of action.
2. Present different scenarios of community dialogue that require the use of various
methods (e.g. members reluctant to participate/talk/address specific issues/identify
causes and responsibilities) and discuss how moderators should proceed.
3. Compare methodologies used in case studies (community-led total sanitation) to
understand differences across methods and their usefulness in different settings.

Unit assessment/evaluation methods

VV In-class exercises
VV Case study/scenario analysis
VV Assignments: Oral and written presentations

42 MODULE 7
NOTES:

Message Design 43
NOTES:

44 MODULE 7
Key contributors:
1. Abhijit Bora, Professor & Head of Department, Tezpur University
2. Abid Husain, Assistant Professor Jamia Millia Islamia
3. Alka Gadgil (Dr.), Head & Faculty, Xavier Institute of Communication, Mumbai, Maharashtra
4. Alka Malhotra, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Delhi
5. Anant Kumar (Dr.), Associate Professor, Xavier Institute of Social Sciences (XISS), Ranchi
6. Anjali Capila (Dr.), Associate Professor, Dept. of Development Communication & Extension, Lady Irwin College, Delhi
7. Aparna Khanna, Associate Professor, Lady Irwin College, Delhi University
8. Arbind Sinha (Dr.), Advisor, MICA - Centre for Development Management and Communication, Mudra Institute of
Communication Ahmedabad (MICA)
9. Archna Kumar, Associate Professor, Development Communication and Extension, Lady Irwin College, Delhi University
10. Arupa Shukla, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Delhi
11. David Mould (Dr.), Professor Emeritus, Media Arts & Studies, Ohio University
12. Diwakar Shukla, Director, Jagran School of Journalism and Communication, Bhopal
13. Elnur Aliyev, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Delhi
14. I Arul Aram (Dr.), Associate Professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University (AU), Chennai, Tamil Nadu
15. Ila Patel (Dr.), Professor, Social Science, Institute of Rural Management, Anand, Gujarat
16. Joya Chakraborthy, Senior Assistant Professor, Tezpur University
17. Kanchan K. Malik (Dr.), Associate Professor in Communication, University of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
18. Kulveen Trehan, Senior Faculty, University School of Mass Communication, Indraprastha University
19. M. H. Ansari (Dr.), Professor & Head of Department, Rural Management, Xavier Institute of Social Services (XISS), Ranchi
20. Manjaree Pant, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Rajasthan
21. Manukonda Rabrindranath, Dean Faculty of Communication and Media studies, Head of Journalism and Mass
Communication, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Madhya Pradesh
22. Narendranath Chowdary, Consultant, Monitoring & Evaluation, UNICEF Delhi
23. Neela Saldanha, Director, Center for Social and Behaviour Change, Ashoka University
24. Neelam Yadava (Dr.), Assistant Professor, Mudra Institute of Communication Ahmadabad, Gujarat
25. Purnima Mehrotra, Center for Social and Behaviour Change, Ashoka University
26. R Lavanya (Dr.), Assistant Professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University (AU), Chennai, Tamil Nadu
27. Rachana Sharma, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Delhi
28. Raj Shree Verma (Dr.), Associate Professor, Rural Management, XISS
29. Rashmi Jain, Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Jamia Millia Islamia
30. Rudrajit Das, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Delhi
31. S. Arulchelvan (Dr.), Assistant Professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University (AU), Chennai, Tamil Nadu
32. S. Devaraj (Dr.), Research Assistant, Dept. of Extension Education, Gandhigram Rural Institute, Tamil Nadu
33. Salman Khan, Research Associate, School of Social Work, Jamia Millia Islamia
34. Sanjay Singh, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Madhya Pradesh
35. Sant Kumar (Dr.), Associate Professor, Rural Management, Xavier Institute of Social Services (XISS), Ranchi
36. Santosh Kumar Patra (Dr.), Assistant Professor, Media Studies, Mudra Institute of Communication, Ahmadabad
37. Seema Kumar, Communication for Development Specialist, UNICEF Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka
38. Shivani Saraf, Center for Social and Behaviour Change, Ashoka University
39. Siddartha Shrestha, Chief, Communication for Development, UNICEF Delhi
40. S.K. Gopal (Dr.), Programme Coordinator, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gandhigram Rural Institute, Tamil Nadu
41. Sunitha Don, Assistant Professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University (AU), Chennai, Tamil Nadu
42. Tisha Srivastav, Assistant Professor, Film and Media Studies, Ashoka University
43. U.T. Rao (Dr.), Professor, General Management, Mudra Institute of Communication, Ahmadabad, Gujarat
44. Uma Maheshwari P., Assistant Professor, Department of Media Sciences, Anna University (AU), Chennai, Tamil Nadu
45. Vaiju Naravane, Professor, Journalism and Media Studies, Ashoka University
46. Vasuki Belavadi, Associate Professor in Communication, University of Hyderabad
47. Vinod Pavarala (Dr.), Professor in Communication, UNESCO Chair on Community Media, University of Hyderabad

Message Design 45
For more copies contact:

Communication for Development Section

United Nations Children's Fund
73 Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110 003, India
Phone : +91-11-24690401
Email : [email protected]
Web : www.unicef.org
www.unicef.org/india/
46
www.unicefiec.org
MODULE 7