CELL TYPES AND MODIFICATIONS

1. describe tissues;
2. classify different cell types (of plant/animal tissues) and specify the functions of each;
3. describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions;
4. understand the importance of structure and function of different cell types in a living organism

Hello learners! Welcome to our third lesson which is all about Cell types. In here, you will be able to
learn the different cell types in plants and animals as well as the different modifications of the cell. Are
you excited? Come on, let's get started!

Cell Types in Organisms

There are many different cell types in organisms. The following are some of the cells found in plants
and animals with specific functions.

Like animals, plants are multicellular eukaryotes whose bodies are composed of organs, tissues, and
cells with highly specialized functions. The relationships between plant organs, tissues, and cell types
are illustrated below.
Plant tissues

Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general types: meristematic tissue, and permanent (or non-
meristematic) tissue. Meristematic tissue is analogous to stem cells in animals: meristematic cells are
undifferentiated continue to divide and contribute to the growth of the plant. In contrast, permanent
tissue consists of plant cells that are no longer actively dividing.
Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize, and become permanent tissue. Such
cells take on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further. They differentiate into three main tissue
types: dermal, vascular, and ground tissue. Each plant organ (roots, stems, leaves) contains all three
tissue types:

A. Dermal tissue covers and protects the plant, and controls gas exchange and water absorption (in
roots). Dermal tissue of the stems and leaves is covered by a waxy cuticle that prevents evaporative
water loss. Stomata are specialized pores that allow gas exchange through holes in the cuticle. Unlike
the stem and leaves, the root epidermis is not covered by a waxy cuticle which would prevent absorption
of water. Root hairs, which are extensions of root epidermal cells, increase the surface area of the root,
greatly contributing to the absorption of water and minerals. Trichomes, or small hair-like or spikey
outgrowths of epidermal tissue, may be present on the stem and leaves, and aid in defense against
herbivores.

B. Ground tissue carries out different functions based on the cell type and location in the plant, and
includes parenchyma (photosynthesis in the leaves, and storage in the roots), collenchyma (shoot
support in areas of active growth), and sclerenchyma (shoot support in areas where growth has ceased)
is the site of photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for the vascular tissue, provides structural
support for the stem, and helps to store water and sugars.

C. Vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant. Vascular tissue
is made of two specialized conducting tissues: xylem and phloem. Xylem tissue transports water and
nutrients from the roots to different parts of the plant, and also plays a role in structural support in the
stem. Phloem tissue transports organic compounds from the site of photosynthesis to other parts of the
plant. The xylem and phloem always lie adjacent to each other in a vascular bundle.

Plant Cell Types

Each plant tissue type is comprised of specialize cell types which carry out vastly different functions:

A. Dermal tissue cells:

- Epidermal cells
- Stomata or more accurately, guard cells
- Trichomes
 B. Ground tissue cells:
- Parenchyma
- Collenchyma
- Sclerenchyma

C. Vascular tissue cells:

- Tracheids
- Vessel elements
- Sieve tube cells
- Companion cells

While these types of cells perform different functions and have different structures, they do share an
important feature: all plant cells have primary cell walls, which are flexible and can expand as the cell
grows and elongates. Some (but not all) plant cells also have a secondary cell wall, typically composed
of lignin (the substance that is the primary component of wood). Secondary cell walls are inflexible and
play an important role in plant structural support.

Cells in dermal tissue

The outer layer of tissue surrounding the entire plant is called the epidermis, usually comprised of a
single layer of epidermal cells which provide protection and have other specialized adaptations in
different plant organs. In the root, the epidermis aids in absorption of water and minerals. Root hairs,
which are extensions of root epidermal cells, increase the surface area of the root, greatly contributing
to the absorption of water and minerals. Roots also contain specialized dermal cells called endodermis,
which is found only in the roots and serves as a checkpoint for materials entering the root’s vascular
system from the environment. A waxy substance is present on the walls of the endodermal cells. This
waxy region, known as the Casparian strip, forces water and solutes to cross the plasma membranes
of endodermal cells instead of slipping between the cells.

In the stem and leaves, epidermal cells are coated in a waxy substance called a cuticle which prevents
water loss through evaporation. The cuticle is not present on root epidermis and is the same as the
Casparian strip, which is present in the roots. To permit gas exchange for photosynthesis and
respiration, the epidermis of the leaf and stem also contains openings known
as stomata (singular: stoma). Two cells, known as guard cells, surround each leaf stoma, controlling
its opening and closing and thus regulating the uptake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen and
water vapor.
Stems and leaves may also have trichomes, hair-like structures on the epidermal surface, that help to
reduce transpiration (the loss of water by aboveground plant parts), increase solar reflectance, and
store compounds that defend the leaves against predation by herbivores.

Visualized at 500x with a scanning electron microscope, several stomata are clearly visible on (a) the
surface of this sumac (Rhus glabra) leaf. At 5,000x magnification, the guard cells of (b) a single stoma
from lyre-leaved sand cress (Arabidopsis lyrata) have the appearance of lips that surround the opening.
In this (c) light micrograph cross-section of an A. lyrata leaf, the guard cell pair is visible along with the
large, sub-stomatal air space in the leaf. (credit: OpenStax Biology, modification of work by Robert R.
Wise; part c scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Trichomes give leaves a fuzzy appearance as in this (a) sundew (Drosera sp.). Leaf trichomes include
(b) branched trichomes on the leaf of Arabidopsis lyrata and (c) multibranched trichomes on a mature
Quercus marilandica leaf. (credit: OpenStax Biology, a: John Freeland; credit b, c: modification of work
by Robert R. Wise; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Cells in vascular tissue

Just like in animals, vascular tissue transports substances throughout the plant body. But instead of a
circulatory system which circulates by a pump (the heart), vascular tissue in plants does
not circulate substances in a loop, but instead transports from one extreme end of the plant to the other
(eg, water from roots to shoots). Vascular tissue in plants is made of two specialized conducting
tissues: xylem, which conducts water, and phloem, which conducts sugars and other organic
compounds. A single vascular bundle always contains both xylem and phloem tissues. Unlike the
animal circulatory system, where the vascular system is composed of tubes that are lined by a layer of
cells, the vascular system in plants is made of cells – the substance (water or sugars) actually
moves through individual cells to get from one end of the plant to the other.

Xylem tissue transports water and nutrients from the roots to different parts of the plant, and
includes vessel elements and tracheids, both of which are tubular, elongated cells that conduct water.
Tracheids are found in all types of vascular plants, but only angiosperms and a few other specific plants
have vessel elements. Tracheids and vessel elements are arranged end-to-end, with perforations
called pits between adjacent cells to allow free flow of water from one cell to the next. They have
secondary cell walls hardened with lignin, and provide structural support to the plant. Tracheids and
vessel elements are both dead at functional maturity, meaning that they are actually dead when they
carry out their job of transporting water throughout the plant body.
Phloem tissue, which transports organic compounds from the site of photosynthesis to other parts of
the plant, consists of sieve cells and companion cells. Sieve cells conduct sugars and other organic
compounds, and are arranged end-to-end with pores called sieve plates between them to allow
movement between cells. They are alive at functional maturity, but lack a nucleus, ribosomes, or other
cellular structures. Sieve cells are thus supported by companion cells, which lie adjacent to the sieve
cells and provide metabolic support and regulation.

The xylem and phloem are always next to each other. In stems, the xylem and the phloem form a
structure called a vascular bundle; in roots, this is termed the vascular stele or vascular cylinder.

This light micrograph shows a cross section of a squash (Curcurbita maxima) stem. Each teardrop-
shaped vascular bundle consists of large xylem vessels toward the inside and smaller phloem cells
toward the outside. Xylem cells, which transport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the
plant, are dead at functional maturity. Phloem cells, which transport sugars and other organic
compounds from photosynthetic tissue to the rest of the plant, are living. The vascular bundles are
encased in ground tissue and surrounded by dermal tissue. (credit: OpenStax Biology, modification of
work by “(biophotos)”/Flickr; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Cells in ground tissue

Ground tissue is all the other tissue in a plant that isn’t dermal tissue or vascular tissue. Ground tissue
cells include parenchyma, (photosynthesis in the leaves, and storage in the roots), collenchyma (shoot
support in areas of active growth), and sclerenchyma (shoot support in areas where growth has
ceased).

Parenchyma are the most abundant and versatile cell type in plants. They have primary cell walls which
are thin and flexible, and most lack a secondary cell wall. Parenchyma cells are totipotent, meaning
they can divide and differentiate into all cell types of the plant, and are the cells responsible for rooting
a cut stem. Most of the tissue in leaves is comprised of parenchyma cells, which are the sites of
photosynthesis, and parenchyma cells in the leaves contain large quantities of chloroplasts for
photosynthesis. In roots, parenchyma are sites of sugar or starch storage, and are called pith (in the
root center) or cortex (in the root periphery). Parenchyma can also be associated with phloem cells in
vascular tissue as parenchyma rays.
Collenchyma, like parenchyma, lack secondary cell walls but have thicker primary cells walls than
parenchyma. They are long and thin cells that retain the ability to stretch and elongate; this feature
helps them provide structural support in growing regions of the shoot system. They are highly abundant
in elongating stems. The “stringy” bits of celery are primarily collenchyma cells.

Sclerenchyma cells have secondary cell walls composed of lignin, a tough substance that is the primary
component of wood. Sclerenchyma cells therefore cannot stretch, and they provide important structural
support in mature stems after growth has ceased. Interestingly, sclerenchyma cells are dead at
functional maturity. Sclerenchyma give pears their gritty texture, and are also part of apple cores. We
use sclerenchyma fibers to make linen and rope.

Animal Cell Types

Each type of cell in the human body is specially equipped for its role. Cells of the digestive system, for
instance, are vastly different in structure and function from cells of the skeletal system. Cells of the
body depend on each other to keep the body functioning as a unit.
 Cell Types Functions
Stored fat for energy.
Fat Cells
Produce hormones that influence metabolism.

Sex Cells Unite during fertilization for reproduction.

Protection of the body against damage.
Skin Cells Acts as first line of defense against bacteria.
Prevent dehydration and can store fat.

Have the ability to develop into specialized cells for organs/tissues.

Stem Cells
Can be generated for the treatment of diseases and tissue repair.

For locomotion, support and protection of soft tissues, calcium and phosphate
Bone Cells
storage, and harboring of bone marrow

Transport oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues.

Blood Cells
Form blood clots to prevent excess blood loss and regulate body temperature.
Send electrical signals among the brain, spinal cord and other organs of the
Nerve Cells
body.
Muscle Cells Produce force and motion
Produce digestive enzymes and secretions and make up the bulk of the
Pancreatic Cells
pancreas.
Gases, macromolecules and fluid regulation.
Endothelial Cells
Creation of new blood vessels and blood pressure regulation.

Stem Cell

POWERLINK:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D33ZL-qKi9A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wNe6RuK0FfA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VwsnTpuWYDo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X0GMp8oM_2E

REFERENCES:

Macasil, T. D., et. al. (2017). General Biology 1 For Senior High School. Intramuros, Manila:
Mindshapers Co.,Inc.

https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/growth-and-reproduction/plant-development-i-tissue-
differentiation-and-function/