Functions and Graphs

Summary Notes

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Gradient of a straight line
• The slope of a line is its gradient.

𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒚 −𝒚𝟏 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆

•𝒎= = =
𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒙 −𝒙𝟏 𝒓𝒖𝒏

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

Types of Gradients

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Straight-line Graph
➢𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
m = gradient
c = y -intercept value
( the value of y where the line
crosses the y-axis)

➢Straight- line graph → power of x is 1.

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Straight-line Graph of the form
➢𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄

➢Example
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 12 is a straight line.

3
𝑦 =− 𝑥+3
4

3
The graph is a straight line with gradient − and y-intercept ( 0,3).
4

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Straight-line Graph(Coordinate Geometry)

Gradient Equation of a straight line

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 ( 𝑥 − 𝑥1)
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Straight-line Graph(Coordinate Geometry)
Parallel Lines Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines have the same gradients. Two lines are perpendicular,

If L1 // L2, 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1
𝟏
gradient of L1 = gradient of L2 Gradient of perpendicular line, 𝒎𝟐 = −
𝒎𝟏

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Straight-line Graph(Coordinate Geometry)
Distance between two points on a line

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Travel Graph
Distance-time graph ( the speed at which the object is travelling)

➢Straight line represents constant speed

𝒅
➢ 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝒕

➢Unit of the gradient = m/s

➢A horizontal line indicates no movement

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Example for Distance-Time Graph

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 50 𝑘𝑚
➢Speed of car from London to Crawley = = = 25 km/h
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 2ℎ

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Travel Graph
Speed-time graph ( acceleration and deceleration)

➢Travel graph of speed against time can be used to find out more about speed
changes and distance travelled.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
➢ 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

➢Deceleration = negative acceleration = retardation

➢Distance travelled = area under the graph

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

Example for Speed-Time Graph

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Quadratic Graph
Quadratic function form

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

Example : 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐

➢A graph of a quadratic function

produces a smooth curve called a
parabola.
➢Do not join up the points with If a > 0, If a < 0,
straight lines.
Curve is U-shape Curve is inverted
➢Plot the graph within the given
limit ( eg. −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4) U-shape

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Turning Point for Quadratic Graph
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 15
When 𝑦 = 0, 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎
(𝑥 − 5 )(𝑥 − 3 ) = 0
𝑥 = 5 or 𝑥 = 3

5+3
Mid-point of 𝑥 = =4
2

At 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = (4)2 −8 4 + 15 = −1

Coordinates of the minimum point / turning point is ( 4, -1)

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Turning Point for Quadratic Graph
Using Completing Square Method

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓

𝟐 𝟐
𝟖 𝟖
𝒚= 𝒙− − + 𝟏𝟓
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐
𝒚= 𝒙−𝟒 − 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟓

𝟐
𝒚= 𝒙−𝟒 − 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓

𝟐
𝒚= 𝒙−𝟒 −𝟏
Coordinates of the minimum point / turning point is ( 4, -1)
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Cubic Graph
Cubic function form

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅

𝟑 𝟐 If a > 0,
Example : 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒𝒙 Curve is N-shape

➢Do not join up the points with

straight lines.
➢Plot the graph within the given limit
(eg. −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4)
If a < 0,
Curve is inverted
N-shape
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Cubic Graph

To sketch a cubic function, the intersections with both the y-axis and x-axis must be given.
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Cubic Graph
𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟓)

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝒚 = 𝟎 − 𝟐 𝟎 − 𝟑 𝟎 − 𝟓 = −𝟑𝟎

When 𝑦 = 0, (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 − 𝟓) = 𝟎

𝑥 = 2 or 3 or 5

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Reciprocal Graph
Reciprocal function form

𝒂
𝒚=
𝒙

𝟏
Example : 𝒚 =
𝒙

➢Reciprocal graphs have x as the

denominator and that type of
curve is called a hyperbola.
➢The curve approaches, but never
touches the axes. Such lines are
In these graphs, both the x- and y-axes are asymptotes.
called asymptotes.
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Reciprocal Graph

𝟑 𝟏
➢ For 𝒚 = , the curve will be the ➢ For 𝒚 = − , the curve will be
𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏
same as 𝒚 = but further out
, the same as 𝒚 = , but reflected
𝒙 𝒙
from the origin. in the x-axis.
➢ Its asymptotes are the same.
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
Reciprocal Graph

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Finding Asymptotes
➢Vertical Asymptote = parallel with y-axis → x value
▪ For vertical asymptote, Let denominator of function = 0
▪ 𝒂𝒙𝒏 − 𝒄 = 𝟎

➢Horizontal Asymptote = parallel with x-axis → y value

For horizontal asymptote,

▪ If m = n, 𝒚 =
𝒃
𝒃𝒙𝒎 − 𝒅
𝒂 𝒚=
𝒂𝒙𝒏 − 𝒄
▪ If m < n , 𝒚 = 𝟎

▪ If m > n, No horizontal asymptote

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Finding Asymptotes
➢Example

𝟏
𝒚= +𝟒
𝒙−𝟐
𝟒𝒙 − 𝟕
𝒚=
𝒙−𝟐

For vertical asymptote,

𝑥 −2=0
𝑥=2

For horizontal asymptote,

4
𝑦= =4
1

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Exponential Graph
Exponential function form

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙

Example : 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙

➢ The graphs all pass through the coordinate (0, 1) and the x-axis is an asymptote in all three
cases.

1 1
➢ When x is negative, 𝑎−𝑥 can be written as 𝑥 . Therefore, as 𝑎 𝑥 increases in value, 𝑥 gets
𝑎 𝑎
closer and closer to zero, hence closer and closer to the x-axis.
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
Exponential Graph

𝟏
𝒚= 𝒙 = 𝟐−𝒙
𝟐

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Solving equations by graphical methods
➢Step 1 ➢Step 2
▪ Make a table using the given function ▪ Plot the graph
and x-values

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Solving equations by graphical methods
➢Step 3 ➢Step 4
▪ To be able to use original graph, this equation ▪ To draw that straight line:
needs to be manipulated in such a way that one 𝒚 = −𝒙 + 𝟓
side of this equation becomes 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 5
To solve the equation 𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝟕 = 𝟎

−𝒙 → 𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝒙 − 𝟕 = −𝒙 When 𝑦 = 0, −𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝟎

𝒙=𝟓
+𝟓→ 𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝒙 − 𝟕 + 𝟓 = −𝒙 + 𝟓

𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝒙 − 𝟐 = −𝒙 + 𝟓

𝒚 = −𝒙 + 𝟓
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Solving equations by graphical methods
➢Step 5 ➢Step 6
▪ Draw that straight line on original ▪ Check the intersection points between the curve
graph and the line

Solutions to the equations are

x ≈ −1.5 and x ≈ 1.5.

Remark:
Solutions to the equation = Roots of the equation

If the coordinates of the solutions to the equation

are asked, need to write as coordinate form (x,y)

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Tangent to a curve
To find the gradient of a curve at a
point:
1. Draw a tangent to the curve at that point
2. Do this by pivoting a ruler about the point
until the angles between the curve are as
equal as possible.

𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝒓𝒖𝒏

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Tangent to a curve
➢Example
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2

Calculate the gradient of the curve at the

point where 𝑥 = 1

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Differentiation and the gradient function
➢The gradient of a curve is constantly changing.

➢Gradient of the curve at any point = gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Differentiation and the gradient function
➢The process of finding the gradient function is known as differentiation.
➢Differentiating a function produces the derivative or gradient function.
𝒅𝒚
➢Derivative is written as
𝒅𝒙

𝒚 = 𝒙𝒏 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒄 = 𝒄𝒙𝟎
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
= 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒂𝒙𝟎 = 𝒂 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Example
𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙−𝟐 + 𝟓
𝒅𝒚 −𝟑
𝟐
= 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟎 = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟑
𝒅𝒙 𝒙

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Differentiation and the gradient function
➢Example
1
Find the gradient of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4
2
at the point where x = 4.

1 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 4
2

𝑑𝑦
𝑓′ 𝑥 = = 𝑥−2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
At 𝑥 = 4, = 𝑓′ 4 = 4 − 2 = 2
𝑑𝑥

Therefore, gradient of the curve at 𝑥 = 4 is 2.

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Equation of the tangent to the curve
𝒅𝒚
➢ = gradient of the tangent
𝒅𝒙

➢Use equation: 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏)

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Turning points
➢Stationary points = Turning Points = Vertex = Maximum / Minimum points
𝑑𝑦
➢Turning points are points on the curve where the gradient is zero, i.e. where =0
𝑑𝑥

m = +ve m = -ve
m = +ve
m = -ve

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 To find turning points
➢To find the coordinates of turning points,
1. Differentiate 𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to find the gradient function

𝑑𝑦
2. Solve 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 ( =0)
𝑑𝑥

3. Substitute the values of 𝑥 into the original equation to find the corresponding y-coordinates

𝑑2𝑦
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = → measures the change in gradient.
𝑑𝑥 2

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
If = 0 and < 0 , the point is maximum.
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
If = 0 and > 0 , the point is minimum.
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

Kinematics

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

Kinematics Example

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Mapping Diagram
Functions
Input Output Input Output
Input Output
Output Input

One input,
One output One input,
Two outputs
Two inputs,
One output

Function → there is only one output value ( y-value) Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Functions
➢ Vertical line is placed at one x - value, and if the intersection points are at the same y -
value, it is function.

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Functions
➢ Function Notation

Example: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐, 𝒇 𝟐 =?
𝒇 𝟐 = 3 (2) – 2 = 4

➢ Domain and Range

Input / x – value → Domain

Output / y – value → Range

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Functions
➢ Composite functions

▪ When one function is followed by another, the result is a composite function.

▪ 𝒈𝒇 𝒙 → do 𝒇 𝒙 first, followed by 𝒈 𝒙 .

▪ 𝒇𝟐 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒙 → apply the function f twice.

▪ Domain of g = range of f

▪ Note: 𝑓𝑔 𝑥 and 𝑔𝑓 𝑥 are not necessarily the same.

Example: 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 − 𝟐, 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒙

𝒈𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒈 𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟑 𝒙−𝟐
Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)
 Functions
➢ Inverse functions ➢ Example 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟐
1. Write the function as
➢ The inverse of 𝒇 is the function that undoes Let 𝒚 = 𝒇−𝟏 𝒙
whatever 𝒇 has done. 𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒇−𝟏 𝒙 )
𝒇 𝒚 =𝒙
➢ Inverse of function 𝒇 𝒙 → 𝒇−𝟏 𝒙
2. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦 variables
Domain of 𝒇−𝟏 𝒙 = Range of 𝒇 𝒙 𝟓𝒚 − 𝟐 = 𝒙
𝟓𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟐

Range of 𝒇−𝟏 𝒙 = Domain of 𝒇 𝒙

3. Rearrange to make 𝑦 the subject
𝒙+𝟐
−𝟏
➢ 𝒇 𝒙 can exist if, and only if the function 𝒚=
𝟓
𝒇 𝒙 is a one-one mapping. −𝟏
𝒙+𝟐
𝒇 𝒙 =
𝟓

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)

 Fighting!
You can do well.
Keep up the good work.

Thawdar Htet (B.Eng. EEE, NTU S’pore)