Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

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Australasian Marketing Journal

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Eating clean and green? Investigating consumer motivations towards the

purchase of organic food
Samantha Smith, Angela Paladino *
Department of Management and Marketing, Level 10, 198 Berkeley Street, The University of Melbourne VIC 3010, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Growing consumer concern for health and environment issues has resulted in increased attention
Received 7 January 2010 towards the purchase and consumption of organic food. This has driven an increase in organic research,
Accepted 7 January 2010 especially as marketers seek to understand the motivations behind consumer purchases of organic goods.
This study explored the effects of health consciousness, environmental concern, organic knowledge,
availability, quality, price consciousness, subjective norms, risk aversion, perceived control and familiar-
Keywords: ity on organic attitudes, organic purchase intentions and organic purchase behaviour. These variables
Organic
formed the antecedents of the causal model which utilised Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) Theory of Rea-
Attitudes
Behaviours
soned Action as the framework of analysis. Results showed strong support for the relationship between
Environmental marketing organic knowledge, subjective norms and environmental concern on organic attitudes. While health con-
sciousness, quality, subjective norms and familiarity were found to influence purchase intentions, famil-
iarity was the only variable found to exhibit a significant relationship with organic purchase behaviour.
This paper will discuss the implications of these results for marketers. It will also consider the limitations
of the study and areas for future research.
Ó 2010 Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Australian organic industry is small in comparison to the

global market, representing less than 1% (Rural Industries Research
‘Organic’ refers to products that are produced without the aid of and Development Corporation, 2006). It is also underdeveloped in
fertilisers or pesticides (Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997). Burch terms of the Australian agricultural production with estimates that
(2001) explained that organic food is ‘‘food guaranteed to have it is only 1–1.5% of the total value (Organic Federation of Australia,
been produced, stored and processed without the addition of syn- 2001). The growth of the Australian organic industry, in terms of
thetically produced fertilisers and chemicals” (as quoted in Lockie production, is largely influenced by overseas markets, especially
et al., 2002). Europe as they take around 70% of Australia’s organic exports (Ba-
Products classified as organic are produced in agreement with ker, 2007). Annual growth estimates show that organic production
standards right through all aspects of production and are then cer- is expanding at a rate of 16% per annum (Department of Primary
tified by an industry body (Lyons et al., 2001). This review will spe- Industries, n.d.).
cifically focus on produce that is certified organic; this also Organics is an emerging area of research (Huang, 1996). There
includes products that come under the label of biodynamic and ex- have been several European studies that have looked at the con-
cludes genetically modified foods. sumer in regards to organic purchases (Chinnici et al., 2002; Davies
Research has estimated that the global organic industry is et al., 1995; Grunert and Juhl, 1995; Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002;
growing at a rate of 10–30% p.a. and is worth 33 billion dollars Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997; Magnusson et al., 2001; Makato-
(Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, 2006). uni, 2002; McEachern and McClean, 2002; Padel and Foster,
In Australia there is little data on industry size as most agricultural 2005; Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005; Tregear et al., 1994). This
research does not differentiate between conventional and organic research has focused on consumer attitudes towards organic prod-
produce. However, estimates put Australian industry sales at ucts (Davies et al., 1995; Magnusson et al., 2001; Tregear et al.,
around 400 million dollars annually (Rural Industries Research 1994) and consumer motivations for purchasing organic food
and Development Corporation, 2006). (Chinnici et al., 2002; Grunert and Juhl, 1995; Hutchins and Green-
halgh, 1997; Makatouni, 2002; Padel and Foster, 2005; Tarkiainen
and Sundqvist, 2005). However, there has been little of this re-
search conducted within the Australian market and even less
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 8344 1916; fax: +61 3 8349 4293.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Paladino). examining the youth market (Lea and Worsley, 2005; Lockie

1441-3582/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ausmj.2010.01.001
94 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

et al., 2004, 2002; Squires et al., 2001). Moreover, these studies beliefs; if an individual believes the performance of a specific
have focused on consumer attitudes and demographics (Lea and behaviour will lead to a positive outcome then he/she will develop
Worsley, 2005; Squires et al., 2001), with little research examining a favourable attitude towards that behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein,
Australian consumers motivations for purchasing organic food 1980). Additionally, attitudes are predictors of purchase intentions
products (Lockie et al., 2002). Consumer motivations with respect and consequently purchase behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). In other
to organic produce are the emerging interest for researchers. As words, attitudes influence the intentions held and the more favour-
Lockie et al. (2002) advocate it is ‘clear that the future of organics able the attitude, the greater the intention to perform the behav-
will be very much dependent on the motivations of end consum- iour will be (Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005). Moreover,
ers’. Therefore this study will examine consumer motivations and attitudes are important as consumers require an understanding
their purchase intentions towards organic produce, within an Aus- of their attitudes and motivations in order to overcome the per-
tralian context. As Grunert and Juhl (1995) suggest, research ceived purchase barriers they face (Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002).
should look at different samples within countries to see if theories Research has supported the attitude-intention relationship,
hold for all groups. showing that environmental attitudes do have an impact on consum-
This paper will focus specifically on the organic vegetable mar- ers green purchase intentions (Alwitt and Pitts, 1996). Squires et al.
ket. Organic vegetables are produced all year round in Australia (2001) also reinforce this, finding that consumers who hold self con-
and account for over half of all organic sales (Willer and Yussefi, fessed green attitudes purchase more organic products than those
2006), making it an appropriate sector to examine. In addition, without green attitudes. Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005) found that
the purpose of this study is to discover the youth consumers’ moti- a positive relationship exists between consumers’ attitudes towards
vation behind organic purchases and thus extend current knowl- buying and their intentions to buy organic products. In contrast, Mag-
edge in the area to a specific and unexplored cohort of nusson et al. (2001) found that positive attitudes were not ultimately
consumers. This has in fact not been achieved in any past studies reflected in purchase intentions. The majority of respondents in their
and represents a significant contribution to knowledge in the area. study had positive attitudes towards organic products but were not
It also presents information valued by marketing practitioners. willing or able to purchase in accordance with their attitudes, due
to barriers of income and low perceived value for money.
Despite this, the majority of research demonstrates that many
2. Background and hypotheses
consumers depict positive attitudes towards organic food products
(Lea and Worsley, 2005; Magnusson et al., 2001; Tarkiainen and
2.1. Theoretical framework
Sundqvist, 2005). The greater the positive attitudes, the greater
the intention to buy will be and therefore, the greater the likeli-
In order to appreciate the reasons why consumers purchase or-
hood that consumer will purchase organic products over conven-
ganic produce, an understanding of purchase behaviours is re-
tional alternatives (Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005).
quired. The Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour
A mediator has been defined as ‘‘the generative mechanism
(Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen, 1991) have been used through-
through which the focal independent variable is able to influence
out attitudinal research to understand and predict consumer pur-
the dependent variable” (Baron and Kenny, 1986, p. 1173). The
chase behaviours. These theories have been applied in a variety
TRA indicates that mediation effects will influence the relation-
of contexts, from exercise behaviour (Smith and Biddle, 1999), con-
ships formed (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Therefore this report will
dom use (Wilson et al., 1992) and speeding behaviour (Stead et al.,
examine the effect of mediators. First the effect of purchase inten-
2005). The Theory of Planned Behaviour has also been utilised
tions on the relationship between the antecedents and purchase
within organic research (Magnusson et al., 2001; Tarkiainen and
behaviour will be examined. Next, the mediation effects of organic
Sundqvist, 2005). Therefore, consistent with these past studies, this
attitudes on the relationship between antecedents and purchase
study incorporates TPB as its theoretical framework.
intentions will be explored. Individual hypotheses will be dis-
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) predicts behaviour by
cussed in each antecedent section.
evaluating the intention to carry out the specified behaviour
(Ajzen, 1991). Intentions are identified as the effort an individual H1a: An increase in positive attitudes towards organic produce
is willing to exert to perform the behaviour, which includes moti- will increase consumer’s intention to purchase organic produce.
vations (Ajzen, 1991). Intentions are considered as a precursor to
behaviour and are therefore seen as the best predictor of behaviour H1b: An increase in positive attitudes towards organic produce
(Ajzen, 2002). will increase consumer’s purchase behaviour of organic produce.
Perceived behavioural control was ‘added to’ the TRA to create
the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991). This element H1c: The effect of organic attitudes on organic purchase behaviour
was added to deal with situations where people do not exert full will be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
control of the behaviour in question, for example, when availability
limits them from purchasing a product (Ajzen, 2002). Perceived
2.3. Organic knowledge
behavioural control is the perception an individual holds of the
ease with which the behaviour can be performed (Ajzen, 1991).
Knowledge is important as it is regarded as having an influence
With regards to organic products, price and availability are per-
on the consumer decision making process (Laroche et al., 2001).
ceived behavioural control factors, as they have the potential to
This is supported by Hill and Lynchehaun (2002) who found that
limit consumer purchases.
knowledge is a key influencer in the purchase of organic products.
Moorman et al. (2004) found that subjective knowledge influences
2.2. Attitudes the choice a consumer makes, as they are inspired to act in accor-
dance to the knowledge they hold.
Attitudes are the favourable or unfavourable evaluation an indi- Research has shown that consumers have a basic understanding
vidual forms of a specified behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Attitudes influ- of the term ‘organic’ (Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997). They view
ence the intentions held and the more favourable the attitude, the ‘organic’ as free from chemicals (Hutchins and Greenhalgh,
greater the intention to perform the behaviour will be (Tarkiainen 1997). Lyons et al. (2001) showed that consumers describe organic
and Sundqvist, 2005). Attitudes are also a function of behavioural produce as natural, raw and being less processed than conven-
 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104 95

tional products. To further this, research conducted by Hill and H3b: An increase in environmental concern will increase con-
Lynchehaun (2002) has shown that consumers understand the core sumer’s intention to purchase organic produce.
characteristics of organic products but that they lack an under-
standing of organic farming practices and how they differ from H3c: An increase in environmental concern will increase con-
conventional farming methods. Additional research has supported sumer’s purchase behaviour of organic produce.
this, showing that few consumers understood the certification pro-
cesses of organic farming (Lockie et al., 2002) and that consumers H3d: The effect of environmental concern organic knowledge, on
demonstrate little knowledge of the inspection processes involved organic purchase intentions will be mediated by green purchasing
with organic production (Padel and Foster, 2005). This indicates attitudes.
that although most consumers have a basic definition of organics
they lack full knowledge of its meaning and production process. H3e: The effect of environmental concern on organic purchase
This suggests that knowledge is an important influencer in the behaviour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
decision to purchase organic foods.
Organic knowledge is affected by consumer mistrust of organic 2.5. Price consciousness
labelling practices (Padel and Foster, 2005). Lea and Worsley’s
(2005) study found that approximately 50% of consumers consider Consumers perceive organic foods as expensive compared to
organic labelling to be unreliable. This suggests a degree of mistrust conventional alternatives (Lea and Worsley, 2005; Magnusson
in the way that organisations apply the word ‘organic’ and implies et al., 2001; Radman, 2005). Magnusson et al. (2001), report that
that organic labels lack authority (Lyons et al., 2001). Lockie et al. many consumers consider price to be an important determinant
(2002) also support this, stating that consumers were sceptical of of purchase. They go further to state that organic food products
the reliability of the labelling of organic products and that few con- should not be more costly than conventional ones (Magnusson
sumers understood the process. This level of mistrust among con- et al., 2001). This suggests that consumers require value for money
sumers makes it harder for them to identify ‘fakes’, thereby and need to justify the price premium being paid (Hill and Lyn-
skewing their subjective knowledge. This will negatively affect their chehaun, 2002; Padel and Foster, 2005). However, this justification
purchase intentions and ultimately purchases of organic goods. is often difficult, as consumers lack the information to adequately
assess their purchases (Padel and Foster, 2005). In this way willing-
H2a: An increase in organic knowledge will increase consumer’s
ness to pay a price premium is related to organic knowledge; con-
positive attitudes towards organic produce.
sumers require a justification, for example, better quality or tastier
goods, for why they pay more for organic goods.
H2b: An increase in organic knowledge will increase consumer’s
Price is often perceived to be the major barrier to the purchase of
intention to purchase organic produce.
organic produce (Lea and Worsley, 2005; Magnusson et al., 2001;
Padel and Foster, 2005; Tregear et al., 1994). Tarkiainen and Sundq-
H2c: An increase in organic knowledge will increase consumer’s
vist (2005) have shown in their study that this is especially the case
purchase behaviour of organic produce.
for low income earners, where a high price premium can make or-
ganic purchases impossible. Research has also shown that the
H2d: The effect of organic knowledge on organic purchase inten-
majority of consumers would purchase more organic food products
tions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes.
if there was a decrease in price premiums (Radman, 2005; Lea and
Worsley, 2005). Organic prices are at a premium compared to con-
H2e: The effect of organic knowledge on organic purchase behav-
ventional goods; however, prices in some sectors are decreasing
iour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
making them on a par with conventional goods (Willer and Yussefi,
2006). This suggests that we need a better understanding of the role
2.4. Environmental concern
of price perceptions in the purchase decision.
Nevertheless, research suggests that some consumers are will-
Grunert and Juhl (1995) define an environmentally concerned
ing to pay price premiums for organic goods (Lockie et al., 2004;
consumer as one ‘‘who knows that the production, distribution,
Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997; Radman, 2005). Davies et al.
use, and disposal of products lead to external costs, and who eval-
(1995) showed that the majority of consumers in his study were
uates such external costs negatively, trying to minimise them by
prepared to pay up to 30% extra for organic produce. While this fig-
her/his own behaviour”(p. 44).
ure varies across studies, on average, research shows that consum-
Environmental attitudes impact a consumer’s purchase inten-
ers are willing to spend up to 10–20% more (Lockie et al., 2004;
tions towards environmentally sound products, such as organic
Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997; Radman, 2005). This is significant
produce (Alwitt and Pitts, 1996). Environmental concern is often
as it suggests that price premiums may not be a major purchase
cited as a strong motivator for purchase (Davies et al., 1995;
barrier for consumers.
Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997). However, relating specifically to
It has been found that price is often in conflict with other moti-
organic products, Tregear et al. (1994) found environmental moti-
vations, like environmental concern (Lockie et al., 2002). In other
vations explained only a small part of organic purchases.
words, a consumer’s environmental concern may motivate them
Research has shown that consumers of organic food are inter-
to intend to purchase organic produce but the price premium lim-
ested in natural production methods and preserving the environ-
its their ability to purchase these goods. Other studies show that
ment (Squires et al., 2001). Huang (1996) suggests that the
consumers face a trade-off between buying organic and saving or
increased consumption of organic produce is related to an in-
spending their money on other luxury products (Tarkiainen and
creased concern for environmental issues within society. This is
Sundqvist, 2005). This is important as it suggests that the organic
supported by Tregear et al. (1994) who found that purchasers of
food market does not compete solely with conventional food prod-
organic food products were more likely to engage in environmen-
ucts but also with other goods.
tally friendly activities like recycling in order to demonstrate their
Willingness to pay a price premium is related to quality. This is
environmental concern.
demonstrated in a study conducted by Huang (1996), which found
H3a: An increase in environmental concern will increase con- that consumers were not willing to pay for organic purchases if
sumer’s positive attitudes towards organic produce. they had visual imperfections. This suggests that consumers are
96 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

willing to pay for higher priced organic goods if they are seen as 2.7. Availability
higher quality than cheaper conventional alternatives.
Lack of availability is often cited as a barrier to the purchase of
H4a: An increase in willingness to pay a premium will increase
organic products (Davies et al., 1995; Lea and Worsley, 2005). Da-
consumer’s positive attitudes towards organic produce.
vies et al. (1995) found it to be the main reason why consumers did
not purchase organic produce.
H4b: An increase in willingness to pay a premium will increase
Lyons et al. (2001) found that organic products in Australia
consumer’s intention to purchase organic produce.
were only available in limited quantities and were not easily acces-
sible to consumers. They showed that organic products were of-
H4c: An increase in willingness to pay a premium will increase
fered in smaller selections, had greater variation in consistency
consumer’s purchase behaviour of organic produce.
and generally shorter shelf lives than conventional products (Lyons
et al., 2001). This has been supported by research in other
H4d: The effect of price consciousness on organic purchase inten-
countries (Padel and Foster, 2005; Radman, 2005) and is important
tions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes.
as the lack of availability prevents consumers from purchasing
organic products (Padel and Foster, 2005).
H4e: The effect of price consciousness on organic purchase behav-
Studies have demonstrated that consumers would like to see an
iour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
increase in the availability and range of organic products (Hill and
Lynchehaun, 2002; Lea and Worsley, 2005) and that the majority of
consumers would purchase more organic produce if it was more
2.6. Health consciousness
readily available (Lea and Worsley, 2005). Additionally, it is often
identified as a disadvantage of organic crops that they produce re-
Organic produce is perceived as healthier than non-organic
duced yields in relation to conventional produce (Lyons et al.,
alternatives (Lea and Worsley, 2005; Magnusson et al., 2001; Rad-
2001), this is linked to the availability of organic goods as fewer
man, 2005). Past studies have found that individuals view organic
products are offered for sale.
food as good quality food (Radman, 2005) and distinguish it as hav-
Conversely, studies have found that limited availability is not a
ing a higher vitamin and mineral content than conventional prod-
major obstacle to purchase (Magnusson et al., 2001). In fact, Tar-
ucts (Lea and Worsley, 2005).
kiainen and Sundqvist (2005) found that the perceived availability
Many studies have identified health as the strongest motivator
of organic products had no effect on a consumer’s intention to buy
for purchasing organic produce; showing that the majority of
organic. Padel and Foster (2005) suggest that consumers do not
consumers purchase organic products for health reasons (Chinnici
want to exert excessive effort in order to purchase organic goods.
et al., 2002; Davies et al., 1995; Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997;
In other words consumers want organic products available where
Makatouni, 2002; Padel and Foster, 2005; Squires et al., 2001;
they would normally shop in order to not be inconvenienced by
Tregear et al., 1994). Health is typically considered to include per-
choosing organic goods.
sonal and family health, which is defined as the responsibility one
takes for their family and self well-being (Hutchins and Green- H6a: An increase in availability will increase consumer’s positive
halgh, 1997; Makatouni, 2002). Padel and Foster (2005) distin- attitudes towards organic produce.
guished between the two and suggest that individual, rather
than family health is the strongest motivator for purchasing or- H6b: An increase in availability will increase consumer’s intention
ganic products. to purchase organic produce.
Research into the effect of health consciousness on organic pur-
chases has been mixed. Squires et al. (2001) found that consumers H6c: An increase in availability will increase consumer’s purchase
who are more concerned with health are more likely to purchase behaviour of organic produce.
organic products than those who are not as health conscious. An-
other study found that the relationship between health and atti- H6d: The effect of availability on organic purchase intentions will
tudes towards organic products was not significant for bread and be mediated by green purchasing attitudes.
flour products; however, the researchers proposed that different
product categories may lead to different results (Tarkiainen and H6e: The effect of availability on organic purchase behaviour will
Sundqvist, 2005). Studies have found that an individual’s health be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
consciousness had no significant impact on their organic consump-
tion (Lockie et al., 2004). In fact, research demonstrates that health
2.8. Quality
consciousness alone may not be sufficient to predict organic pur-
chases (Kristensen and Grunert, 1991).
The cosmetic quality of organic produce is described as the prod-
H5a: An increase in health consciousness will increase consumer’s ucts appearance; this can includes insect damage and lack of unifor-
positive attitudes towards organic produce. mity in size (Thompson and Kidwell, 1998). While research has
suggested that consumers dislike the appearance of organic prod-
H5b: An increase in health consciousness will increase consumer’s ucts (Radman, 2005), the majority find the effects on food choice
intention to purchase organic produce. are minimal (Thompson and Kidwell, 1998). Not all organic produce
has a poor appearance. This suggests that consumer perceptions of
H5c: An increase in health consciousness will increase consumer’s appearance are an important consideration for marketers. This is
purchase behaviour of organic produce. supported by Huang (1996) who investigated the cosmetic quality
of organic produce and found no evidence to support the fact that or-
H5d: The effect of health consciousness on organic purchase ganic food is perceived as inferior in appearance compared to con-
intentions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes. ventional goods. Research has also shown that consumers are no
more tolerant of poor product appearance in regards to organic
H5e: The effect of health consciousness on organic purchase goods than conventional goods and that the size of organic produce
behaviour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions. does not discourage purchase (Huang, 1996; Tregear et al., 1994).
 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104 97

Thompson and Kidwell (1998) found that the higher the inci- subjective norms (Pedersen, 2000; Biswas et al., 2000). This is re-
dence of visual defects, the less likely consumers were to buy or- lated to research conducted by Kalafatis et al. (1999) that suggests
ganic products. This raises the issue of consumer awareness, as it the enactment of a ‘socially worthy act’ produces feelings of self re-
can be difficult to observe certain types of damage. For example, spect and pride, whereas not enacting this behaviour can result in
insect damage is often hard to see (Thompson and Kidwell, 1998). feelings of shame. This is significant for this study as organic con-
Another element of quality is taste. Studies have shown that con- sumption has a low degree of visibility and therefore subjective
sumers perceive organic food as tasting better and having more fla- norms may play a lesser role on organic purchase behaviour.
vour than its conventional alternative (Lyons et al., 2001). This is Some research has broken up subjective norms into the effects
important as Magnusson et al. (2001) found that the majority of con- that different referent groups, such as friends, government and ex-
sumers in their study stated the most important criteria for food pur- perts, have on individual decision makers (Park, 2000). However,
chase was good quality. Similarly, McEachern and McClean (2002) this paper will not make this distinction, it will look at subjective
specifically examined organic dairy products. Here, the strongest norms as a whole and the influence that it has on the behaviour
motivator for purchase was identified as improved taste. attitude relationship.
Lockie et al. (2002) suggest natural content is often the primary
H8a: The stronger the subjective norms, the more likely a
reason to buy organic food. The term natural content is concerned
consumer will have positive attitudes towards organic produce.
with food that is minimally unprocessed, contains no additives or
artificial ingredients and is free of chemicals (Lockie et al., 2002).
H8b: The stronger the subjective norms, the more likely a con-
The higher the natural content, the higher are perceptions of qual-
sumer will intend to purchase organic produce.
ity as held by the consumer. Chinnici et al. (2002) also state that
consumers may be motivated by a concern with ‘getting back’ to
H8c: The stronger the subjective norms, the more likely a con-
what food used to be like or ‘tastes of the past’.
sumer will purchase organic produce.
H7a: An increase in quality will increase consumer’s positive
attitudes towards organic produce. H8d: The effect of subjective norms on organic purchase inten-
tions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes.
H7b: An increase in quality will increase consumer’s intention to
purchase organic produce. H8e: The effect of subjective norms on organic purchase behaviour
will be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
H7c: An increase in quality will increase consumer’s purchase
behaviour of organic produce.
2.10. Risk aversion
H7d: The effect of quality on organic purchase intentions will be
mediated by green purchasing attitudes. Generally consumers view organic food as low risk and ‘com-
pletely safe to eat’ (Anderson et al., 2006). However, Anderson
H7e: The effect of quality on organic purchase behaviour will be et al. (2006) also found that some consumers did perceive organic
mediated by green purchasing intentions. food as risky in the long-term. Risk aversion is ‘‘a preference for an
alternative whose outcome is known with certainty over one hav-
ing an equal or more favourable expected value but whose out-
2.9. Subjective norms
comes are probabilistic” (Puto et al., 1985, p. 90). Researchers
generally assume that consumers are risk averse, in that they want
Subjective norms can be conceptualised as the internalised per-
to minimise uncertainty (Puto et al., 1985; Rachlin et al., 1986).
ception that people that are important in the decision maker’s life
The purchase of organic food is considered a risky choice, as
desire them to act (not act) in a certain way (Oliver and Bearden,
consumers lack information on these goods and organics are unfa-
1985). In other words, subjective norms are the ‘perceived social
miliar compared against conventional alternatives. This suggests
pressure’ an individual feels to perform the behaviour (Ajzen,
that consumers who are risk averse would avoid buying organics
1991). As Oliver and Bearden (1985) describe, these norms are
due an unwillingness to chance the certainty of traditional produce
based on the preferences of the decision maker’s referents and also
over uncertainty organic goods. This is supported by Anderson
the individuals desire to act in accordance with these preferences.
et al. (2006) who suggest a consumer’s willingness to buy organic
Subjective norms have been shown to influence purchase
food is influenced by their risk perception of that food. This is also
behaviours (Ajzen, 1991). As Bearden et al. (1989) suggest the
corroborated by research that has found that a main reason for not
influence of others is an important factor in the determination of
switching to organic products is that consumers are content with
behaviour. Moreover, empirical research illustrates that subjective
conventional food products (Magnusson et al., 2001).
norms affect attitudes (Oliver and Bearden, 1985). As Tarkiainen
and Sundqvist (2005) suggest, attitudes conveyed between people H9a: The lower aconsumers’risk perceptionoforganicfoodthe more
and therefore those with positive attitudes towards a product likely they will have positive attitudes towards organic produce.
influence the attitude formation of those around them. Due to this
cross over effect, subjective norms will be viewed as an antecedent H9b: The lower a consumers’ risk perception of organic food the
of attitudes in this paper’s model. more likely they will intend to purchase organic produce.
One of the few studies that examined subjective norms in relation
to organic food purchases found that a significant relationship ex- H9c: The lower a consumers’ risk perception of organic food the
isted between subjective norms and attitudes (Tarkiainen and more likely they will purchase organic produce.
Sundqvist, 2005). This study supported Oliver and Bearden’s (1985)
finding that subjective norms influence attitudes. Therefore, this re- H9d: The effect of risk aversion on organic purchase intentions
port will examine the effect of subjective norms on organic attitudes. will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes.
Research also suggests that the degree of visibility of consump-
tion affects the formation of subjective norms and therefore the H9e: The effect of risk aversion on organic purchase behaviour will
likelihood that decision makers will act in accordance with these be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
98 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

2.11. Perceived control H11e: The effect of convenience on organic purchase behaviour
will be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
Perceived control is the ‘‘perception of the ease or difficulty of
performing the behaviour of interest” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 183). It deals 2.13. Familiarity
with situations where people do not exert full control over the
behaviour in question (Ajzen, 2002). Perceived behavioural control Familiarity is defined as ‘‘the number of product-related experi-
reflects past experience and also any anticipated obstacles (Ajzen, ences accumulated by the consumer” (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987,
1991). These obstacles act to reduce the behaviour in question and p. 411). Familiarity is particularly important in relation to organic
can include things like price (Ajzen, 1991). This is relevant to organic food as it is a relatively new term and consumer experience with
food products, as price and availability have the potential to limit or these products is low. Lack of familiarity can be detrimental to or-
even prevent consumer purchases. Therefore, perceived control is ganic purchases. As Lockie et al. (2002) state, consumers consider
important to consider as consumers are more likely to enact behav- what they typically eat and due to the perceived effort involved, of-
iours that they have full control over (Conner and Armitage, 1998). ten do not switch to organic alternatives. Magnusson et al. (2001)
Evidence shows that behaviour is influenced by an individual’s found that familiarity provided a partial explanation as to why so
perceived control (Ajzen, 1991). Additionally, Ajzen (2002) claims few consumers buy organic products, in spite of their positive atti-
that perceived control can have an indirect influence on purchase tudes towards these goods. Other studies support this finding,
intentions, as a higher level of perceived control should act to in- showing that consumers do not purchase organic products due to
crease the intention to perform behaviour. Therefore, the mediat- unfamiliarity (Mathisson and Scholin, 1994; in Magnusson et al.,
ing effect of perceived control on behaviour through purchase 2001).
intentions will be explored. In contrast to this, studies have shown that curiosity is a con-
tributing factor to the purchase of organic food products (Chinnici
H10a: The stronger the perceived control, the more likely a
et al., 2002; Tregear et al., 1994). Curiosity involves discovering
consumer will have positive attitudes towards organic produce.
something new; it is about seeing what the difference is between
organic and conventional products (Chinnici et al., 2002). This con-
H10b: The stronger the perceived control, the more likely a con-
tradicts the idea of familiarity suggesting that consumers will buy
sumer will intend to purchase organic produce.
organic food to see what the difference is between organic and
conventional food, even though they lack product experience.
H10c: The stronger the perceived control, the more likely a con-
sumer will purchase organic produce. H12a: The greater the familiarity with organic food, the greater a
consumer’s positive attitudes towards organic produce.
H10d: The effect of perceived control on organic purchase inten-
tions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes. H12b: The greater the familiarity with organic food, the greater
the intention to purchase organic produce.
H10e: The effect of perceived control on organic purchase behav-
iour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions. H12c: The greater the familiarity with organic food, the greater the
purchase of organic produce.
2.12. Convenience
H12d: The effect of familiarity on organic purchase intentions will
Convenience in regards to purchases is defined as availability of be mediated by green purchasing attitudes.
food close to home and easy preparation of food (Lockie, 2002). Loc-
kie et al. (2004) found that a major limitation to increasing organic H12e: The effect of familiarity on organic purchase behaviour will
consumption was a consumer concern for convenience in regards be mediated by green purchasing intentions.
to the purchase and preparation of food products. This is supported
by Mathisson and Scholin (1994); they found that consumers did
3. Method
not switch to organic products due to convenience reasons (cited in
Magnusson et al., 2001). In addition Jolly (1991) found that the extra
3.1. Data collection
time needed to search for organic products was viewed as an incon-
venience and may impede purchase (cited in Magnusson et al., 2001). Quantitative data was collected using a four-page survey to as-
Hill and Lynchehaun (2002) found that consumers needed to be sess a range of relationships, as depicted in Fig. 1. Responses were
motivated to buy an alternative to their usual brand. Research sug- measured using five-point likert scales ranging from 1 = strongly
gests that switching to eco-labelled food products requires con-
disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The data was obtained by surveying
sumers to change their habits (Grankvist and Biel, 2001), thus 157 undergraduate students (after accounting for ineligible sur-
requiring an effort on their part. Furthermore, research has demon-
veys) at an Australian University. A student sample was used in or-
strated that consumers do not want to have to exert too much ef- der to examine the reaction to organic goods from the youth
fort to buy organic food (Padel and Foster, 2005).
market. This allowed us to gauge the youth consumer’s motiva-
H11a: The greater the perceived convenience, the greater a tions for purchasing organic foods. As such, the use of a student
consumer’s positive attitudes towards organic produce will be. sample was the most appropriate sample to use for this purpose.
Students were assured that their responses would be kept strictly
H11b: The greater the perceived convenience, the greater the confidential. The response rate was 78.5%. Accordingly, non-re-
intention to purchase organic produce will be. sponse bias did not present a problem.

H11c: The greater the perceived convenience, the greater the pur- 3.2. Sample description
chase of organic produce will be.
The sample size was reduced to 157 surveys after accounting
H11d: The effect of convenience on organic purchase intentions for the 36 unusable surveys. Within the final sample 66% were fe-
will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes. male or 103 respondents. All respondents were aged between 18
 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104 99

Antecedents Mediators Outcomes

H2b…H16b H2c … H16c

Organic
Knowledge H2a

Environmental
Concern H3a

Price
Consciousness H4a

Health
Consciousness H5a

H6a
Availability

Quality H7a H1a Organic H1b Organic

Organic
Purchase Purchase
Attitudes
Intention Behaviour
Subjective Norms H8a

Risk Aversion
H9a

Perceived Control H10

Convenience H11a

Familiarity H12a

Fig. 1. Proposed conceptual model.

and 30 years old. Within households there was an average of 3.2 (Hair et al., 2003). The Pearson correlation measure was used to as-
people, with the average income ranging from $45,001 to sess this. Table 1 lists these results. The results from this analysis
$60,000 per residence. An analysis of the postcode data showed will be discussed next.
that the majority respondents have resided in Australia for most
of their life.
4. Results

3.3. Statistical analysis 4.1. Correlation analysis

Data screening was initially conducted to remove outliers. As Correlations were used to examine the presence of multicollin-
there were fewer than 20 missing cases, mean substitution was earity, where a correlation of greater than +0.70 and less than
carried out to replace missing values. Exploratory factor analysis 0.70 indicated high correlation (Hair et al., 2003). The presence
was performed in the first instance and to assess convergent and of singularity was also examined through the use of the Pearson
discriminant validity. Reliability assessments were conducted to correlation matrix. Singularity is the presence of a perfect correla-
reduce measurement error (Hair et al., 2003). Cronbach’s alpha tion between independent and dependent variables. From Table 1,
(a) was used. Lastly, correlation analysis was conducted to exam- there is no evidence of multicollinearity or singularity within the
ine the strength and direction of relationships between variables data.

Table 1
Pearson correlation matrix (one-tail test).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1. Price consciousness 1
2. Behaviour 0.20** 1
3. Subjective norms 0.09 0.11 1
4. Purchase intentions 0.14* 0.30** 0.44** 1
5. Availability 0.17* 0.14* 0.23** 0.20** 1
6. Quality 0.004 0.16* 0.087 0.19** 0.35** 1
7. Familiarity 0.22** 0.009 0.34** 0.43** 0.25** 0.21** 1
8. Risk aversion 0.29** 0.20** 0.13* 0.07 0.06 0.13 0.09 1
9. Belief 0.07 0.40** 0.28** 0.51** 0.14* 0.02 0.20** 0.07 1
10. Information 0.25** 0.24** 0.14* 0.04 0.16* 0.01 0.03 0.09 0.07 1
11. Objective knowledge 0.05 0.27** 0.13 0.16* 0.12 0.14* 0.01 0.003 0.27** 0.07 1
12. Subjective knowledge 0.11 0.15* 0.28** 0.17* 0.008 0.11 0.007 0.081 0.19* 0.09 0.02 1
13. Health consciousness 2 0.04 0.08 0.14* 0.27** 0.21** 0.13 0.19** 0.23** 0.19** 0.03 0.03 0.001 1
14. Environmental concern 0.16* 0.22** 0.08 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.07 0.12 0.21** 0.10 0.01 0.22** 0.23** 1
15. Attitudes towards 0.10 0.73** 0.28** 0.46** 0.18* 0.06 0.17* 0.06 0.68** 0.05 0.24** 0.26** 0.11 0.19** 1
organics
*
Significant at 5% level.
**
Significant at 1% level.
100 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

4.2. Multiple regression analysis providing support for the relationship between purchase inten-
tions and purchase behaviours.
4.2.1. Stage 1 analysis
Stage 1 regression examined the influence of organic attitudes 4.3. Mediation effects
on organic purchase intentions. Table 2 lists details of the results.
Forty-five percent of the variance (R2) in organic purchase inten- Stage 4 and 5 regressions are concerned with examining medi-
tions is explained by organic attitudes. This suggests that organic ation effects. The procedure used is outlined in Hair et al. (2003)
attitudes have strong explanatory power over purchase intentions. and is based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) accepted procedures.
The results indicate organic attitudes were positively related to or- Briefly, correlations were examined to ensure the relationships be-
ganic purchase intentions at the 1% significance level (p 6 0.01), tween constructs were significant. If the new relationship, which
providing support for H1a. This was further supported by the cor- included the mediating variable, remained significant and un-
relations. Health consciousness, subjective norms and familiarity changed then mediation was not supported. If it reduced but was
were all found to be positively related to purchase intentions still significant then partial mediation exists. However, if it was re-
(p 6 0.01), providing support for H5b, H9b and H12b, respectively. duced to the point of insignificance then full mediation was
Quality was found to be positively related (p 6 0.05), supporting present.
H7b.
4.3.1. Stage 4 analysis
4.2.2. Stage 2 analysis Stage 4 was concerned with the mediation effects of purchase
Stage 2 regression examines the influence of the antecedents on intentions on the relationship between the antecedents and pur-
organic attitudes. As indicated by Table 2 19% of the variance in or- chase behaviour (H1c, H2e–H12e). Organic attitudes, subjective
ganic attitudes is explained by the independent variables. Objec- norms and familiarity were all found to be positively related and
tive knowledge was significant (p 6 0.01), supporting H2a. significant at the 5% level. A comparison of Tables 3 and 4 show
Environmental concern and subjective norms are significant that subjective norms are now significant. However, as the rela-
(p 6 0.05), providing support for H3a and H8a. tionship was not initially significant, then mediation is not present.
Thus H8e is not supported. Organic attitudes are now significant
4.2.3. Stage 3 analysis but were not initially (0.2–0.01). Thus, mediation is not present,
Stage 3 regression was concerned with the influence of the providing no support for H1c. Familiarity was reduced but is still
independent variables on organic purchase behaviour. As reflected significant therefore partial mediation is present, providing partial
in Table 2, 25% of the variance in organic purchase behaviour was support for H12e.
explained by the independent variables. This suggests that the
independent variables had relatively strong explanatory power 4.3.2. Stage 5 analysis
over organic purchase behaviour. In comparison to the Stage 2 Stage 5 analysis examined the mediation effects of organic atti-
regression more of the variance is explained. This suggests that tudes on the relationship between antecedents and purchase
the independent variables show more explanatory power to organ- intentions (H2d–H12d). Subjective norms and familiarity were sig-
ic purchase behaviour than organic attitudes. This shows that the nificant at the 1% level, while health consciousness was positively
antecedents have a stronger relationship with purchase behaviour related and significant at the 5% level. By comparing columns in Ta-
than organic attitudes. Of the variables examined, familiarity was ble 2, the results show that subjective norms and familiarity re-
positively related (p 6 0.05), providing support for H12c. Addition- main significant but relatively unchanged. The p-value for
ally, purchase intentions were found to be significant (p 6 0.05), subjective norms went from 0.001 to 0, while familiarity from

Table 2
Multiple regression results.

Analysis 1 Analysis 2 Analysis 3

Dependent variable Dependent variable Dependent variable
Purchase intentions R2 = 0.452 Organic attitudes R2 = 0.191 Purchase behaviour R2 = 0.247
Independent Beta t Significance Independent Beta t Significance Independent Beta t Significance
variable (p) variable (p) variable (p)
Organic attitudes 0.360 5.272 0.000** Information 0.038 0.478 0.633 Organic attitudes 0.112 1.281 0.202
Information 0.077 1.171 0.243 Quality 0.061 0.732 0.465 Information 0.112 1.441 0.152
Quality 0.143 2.071 0.040* Health 0.019 0.233 0.816 Quality 0.132 1.597 0.112
consciousness
Health 0.191 2.838 0.005** Price 0.121 1.467 0.145 Health 0.024 0.293 0.770
consciousness consciousness consciousness
Price 0.088 1.285 0.201 Objective 0.208 2.737 0.007** Price 0.076 0.933 0.352
consciousness knowledge consciousness
*
Objective 0.039 0.607 0.545 Environmental 0.159 2.021 0.045 Objective 0.002 0.025 0.980
knowledge concern knowledge
*
Environmental 0.068 1.035 0.302 Subjective norms 0.215 2.516 0.013 Environmental 0.096 1.236 0.218
concern concern
Subjective norms 0.237 3.285 0.001** Risk aversion 0.087 1.035 0.302 Subjective norms 0.141 1.603 0.111
Risk aversion 0.068 0.969 0.334 Familiarity 0.140 1.648 0.102 Risk aversion 0.160 1.934 0.055
Familiarity 0.212 2.994 0.003** Availability 0.088 1.009 0.315 Familiarity 0.169 1.966 0.050*
Availability 0.089 1.243 0.216 Availability 0.009 0.111 0.912
Purchase 0.234 2.392 0.018*
intentions
*
Significant at 5% level.
**
Significant at 1% level.
 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104 101

0.003 to 0.001. Therefore mediation is not found and H8d and have of organic produce. However, these attitudes were not found
H12d are not supported by the results. The relationship with to be reflected in purchase intentions and attitudes, as H3b and c
health consciousness remains significant but increases from a p- were not supported. This may be due to the fact that respondents
value of 0.005 to 0.013. Therefore mediation is not present and did not have the ability to reproduce their attitudes into purchases.
H5d is not supported. Quality was reduced such that it was no Price consciousness was investigated in H4a–c. Results showed
longer significant once organic attitudes were included as a medi- it was not substantiated with all hypotheses not being supported.
ator. Therefore full mediation is present, supporting H7d. This result is inconsistent with research that shows price is a sig-
nificant variable in organic purchases (Lea and Worsley, 2005;
Magnusson et al., 2001; Padel and Foster, 2005). This is inconsis-
5. Discussion
tent with survey comments where students indicated organic food
was ‘too expensive’, with one student describing organic food as
5.1. Attitudes
‘‘ridiculously priced”. One reason may be that the respondents
were young individuals and their parents may still be responsible
This research was concerned with the question of consumer
for household purchases. This would be an adequate explanation
motivations for purchasing organic food products. It looked at con-
as consumers are less price sensitive when they are not spending
sumer attitudes towards organic products and whether they influ-
their own money.
enced purchase intentions and behaviour (H1a and b). H1a was
Health consciousness was investigated in the form of H5a–c.
supported at the 1% significance level, this suggests that attitudes
H5b was found to be significant at the 1% level (with a p-value of
do influence purchase intentions. This relationship is corroborated
0.005). Suggesting that the more concerned with health a consumer
with a correlation of 0.456 and a p-value of 0. This finding is also
is the more they intend to purchase organic food products. Con-
consistent with other research conducted (Tarkiainen and Sundq-
versely, H5a and c were not supported suggesting that health con-
vist, 2005).
sciousness does not influence attitudes and behaviours. This is not
However, H1b was not supported, showing no relationship be-
consistent with past research that has found the majority of con-
tween organic attitudes and purchase behaviour. This finding is
sumers purchase organic products for health reasons (Chinnici et
inconsistent with research conducted by Squires et al. (2001),
al., 2002; Davies et al., 1995; Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1997; Tre-
who found attitudes did influence purchase behaviour. This sug-
gear et al., 1994). This discrepancy may be due to the young respon-
gests, that although respondents exhibited positive attitudes to-
dents in this study, who are likely to be not that concerned with
wards organic products and these were reflected in their
health aspects. Results may differ if older age groups were used.
purchase intentions, they were not willing or able to purchase in
H6a–c examined the influence availability has on organic atti-
accordance with their attitudes. For example the young university
tudes, purchase intentions and behaviours. All three hypotheses
students surveyed may not have full control over household pur-
were not supported. This finding is inconsistent with past research
chases. This explanation is also consistent with respondent’s com-
that shows availability has a strong impact on organic purchase
ments. One student indicated that they lived at college and had
decisions (Davies et al., 1995; Padel and Foster, 2005). However,
little say over what they ate; another stated that ‘‘I eat whatever
as these studies were conducted overseas, the availability of organ-
mother buys and cooks”. In addition income levels are likely to lim-
ic foods in Australia may not be a big influence on purchases. Fur-
it their purchase behaviours. This is consistent with the explana-
ther studies are needed to support this claim.
tion given by Magnusson et al. (2001) as to why positive organic
Quality was investigated in H7a–c. H7b was found to be signif-
attitudes were not reflected in purchase intentions.
icant at the 5% significance level, with a p-value of 0.040. Suggest-
The results showed that the independent variables showed
ing higher levels of quality increase consumer intentions to
more explanatory power to organic purchase behaviour than or-
purchase organic goods. This is consistent with Davies et al.
ganic attitudes, indicating that the antecedents have a stronger
(1995) research. H7a and c were not supported. This finding is
relationship with organic purchase behaviour than organic atti-
inconsistent with Thompson and Kidwell (1998) who found that
tudes. Showing that the variables examined had a direct effect on
consumers were less likely to purchase organic goods if quality
organic purchase behaviour, which is consistent with the TPB.
was low. This discrepancy may be due to a lack of consumer
knowledge regarding organic quality.
5.2. Antecedents H8a–c examined the effect of subjective norms on organic atti-
tudes, intentions and purchases. It received strong support from
The results obtained for the individual antecedents will now be the results with H8a and b being supported. H8a was supported at
investigated. The first variable examined was organic knowledge, the 5% level with a p-value of 0.013. This finding shows that social
which is concerned with H2a–c. H2a the relationship between or- pressure influences a consumer’s attitude of organic products,
ganic knowledge and attitudes was supported at the 1% level. Sug- which is supported by Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005). With a p-va-
gesting that an increase in organic knowledge acts to increase the lue of 0.001, H8b was supported at the 1% significance level, verify-
level of positive attitudes held. However, H2b and c were not sup- ing the claim that subjective norms influence purchase intentions.
ported by the research, showing that knowledge did not have an However, H8c, the relationship between subjective norms and pur-
effect on purchase intentions and behaviours. This may be due to chase behaviour, was not supported. This finding is inconsistent
the fact that although consumers express positive attitudes they with past research that show subjective norms influence purchase
may still be sceptical of the claims of organic products and their behaviours (Ajzen, 1991). This result may again be due to the inabil-
labelling, which is reflected in their purchases (Lockie et al., ity of survey respondents to act in accordance with their attitudes.
2002). Once more, this finding may reflect the fact that consumers H9a–c investigated the relationship between risk aversion and
simply do not have the resources needed to purchase in accordance organic attitudes, purchase intentions and behaviours. All three
with their attitudes. hypotheses were not supported by the results. This is inconsistent
Hypotheses H3a–c were concerned with environmental con- with past research, which suggests that a consumer’s willingness
cern. H3a which investigated the relationship between environ- to buy organic food is influenced by their risk perceptions (Ander-
mental concern and attitudes was found to be positive and son et al., 2006). This result may reflect the fact that the surveyed
significant at the 5% level. This suggests that the more concerned consumers do not view organic produce as riskier than conven-
a consumer is for the environment the more positive attitudes they tional alternatives, which is supported by Anderson et al. (2006).
102 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

The antecedent of familiarity was investigated in H12a–c. H12a Table 4

was not supported in the findings, suggesting that product experi- Mediation analysis.

ence does not influence organic attitudes. However, H12b was sup- Dependent variable
ported at the 1% significance level, with a p-value of 0.003, showing Purchase intentions
that familiarity influences purchase intentions. Additionally, H12c Mediator
Organic attitudes
with a p-value of 0.050 was supported at the 5% significance level,
supporting a relationship between familiarity and organic pur- Independent variable Beta t Significance (p)

chases. These results are consistent with findings by Lockie et al. Information 0.091 1.269 0.206
(2002). Quality 0.121 1.614 0.109
Health consciousness 0.184 2.516 0.013*
Price consciousness 0.045 0.602 0.548
5.3. Mediation effects Objective knowledge 0.114 1.669 0.097
Environmental concern 0.011 0.154 0.878
Mediation was tested first in terms of the mediation effects of Subjective norms 0.314 4.093 0.000**
Risk aversion 0.036 0.479 0.633
purchase intentions on the antecedents and purchase behaviour.
Familiarity 0.262 3.438 0.001**
Results showed full mediation of subjective norms by intentions, Availability 0.058 0.742 0.459
suggesting that the influence of other people does impact a con- *
Significant at 5% level.
sumer’s purchase behaviour through their purchase intentions. Full **
Significant at 1% level.
mediation of attitudes by intentions was also found, suggesting
that both are important considerations to be included in the model.
Results found partial mediation of familiarity by intentions, indi-
cating consumer experience with organics is important. All other Australian consumers, the paper provides implications for market-
antecedents resulted in no mediation by intentions, which is lar- ers that are specifically relevant to the Australian market. This
gely inconsistent with the TPB. study also allows for comparisons to be made between consumers
The second mediation test examined the mediation effects of in different countries.
organic attitudes on the antecedents and purchase intentions.
Quality was the only antecedent found to exhibit a mediation rela-
tionship with attitudes. With results showing that full mediation 5.5. Managerial implications
was present. Again this suggests that quality does impact a con-
sumer’s intention to buy organic goods. All other antecedents re- This research has augmented the knowledge marketers have of
sulted in no mediation by intentions, which is largely the consumer decision making process with regards to organic pro-
inconsistent with the TPB. Results are depicted in Tables 3–6. duce. As a result, this section will provide implications for market-
ing practice and strategy formulation.
5.4. Theoretical implications Familiarity was found to influence both purchase intentions
and behaviours. Also, as familiarity exhibited a high correlation
This paper adds to the growing body of research that supports with purchase intentions, this makes it an important variable
the TRA as a useful predictive model. It presents the TRA as a ben- for marketers to consider. Marketers should attempt to increase
eficial theory for organic food purchase research. This paper also consumer familiarity with organic produce by promoting trial
adds to the area of future research. The unsupported hypotheses of these products. This finding also suggests that education is
provide scope for further study into the field of organics. Specific important, in order to make consumers more aware of organics
future research focus will be discussed in a subsequent section. and therefore more familiar with these products. This is partic-
This study has contributed to the growing body of research in ularly important for the sample group, students, to get them
the field of organic food purchases. It has examined the role of atti- more involved in household food decisions. Marketing pro-
tudes, intentions and purchase behaviours in regards to organic grams designed around education are supported by Gracia
produce. It has addressed these concerns in an Australian context, and Magistris (2008) who suggest that increasing organic
thus filling a gap in the current literature which mostly consists of knowledge is likely to increase the intention and purchase of
organic research in overseas countries. By looking specifically at organic products. Research also suggests that marketing should
be aimed at new and existing organic buyers (Gracia and Mag-
istris, 2008).
Table 3 Subjective norms were supported as an influence on organic
Mediation analysis 1. attitudes and purchase intentions. This finding, that social
pressure influences a consumer’s attitude of organic products,
Dependent variable
Purchase behaviour has important implications for marketers. For this reason mar-
Mediator keters should attempt to make organic purchases socially
Purchase intentions acceptable and more transparent. Education campaigns can
Independent variable Beta t Significance (p) help with this.
Organic attitudes 0.197 2.407 0.017*
Along with raising awareness of organic products marketers
Information 0.131 1.654 0.100 should try to reduce consumer confusion. In order to reduce con-
Quality 0.098 1.190 0.236 sumer confusion a national logo needs to replace the several cur-
Health consciousness 0.068 0.851 0.396 rent different logos that exist on organic products; this has been
Price consciousness 0.096 1.175 0.242
proposed by the OFA but has not yet been implemented (National
Objective knowledge 0.007 0.094 0.925
Environmental concern 0.112 1.423 0.157 Organic Mark Discussion Document, 2005). This will help to build a
Subjective norms 0.196 2.277 0.024* unified industry and enhance consumer perceptions of trust. There
Risk aversion 0.144 1.720 0.087 is also a need to provide a consistent integrated marketing commu-
Familiarity 0.218 2.579 0.011* nication message to all customers as this will further reduce confu-
Availability 0.030 0.352 0.725
sion and help to build a positive market perception of organic
*
Significant at 5% level. products.
 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104 103

Table 5
Summary of significant hypotheses.

Variables Hypothesis Result

Attitudes H1a: An increase in positive attitudes towards organic produce will increase consumer’s intention to purchase organic Significant at 1% level
produce
H1c: The effect of organic attitudes on organic purchase behaviour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions Significant at 5% level
Organic knowledge H2a: An increase in organic knowledge will increase consumer’s positive attitudes towards organic produce Significant at 1% level
Environmental H3a: An increase in environmental concern will increase consumer’s positive attitudes towards organic produce Significant at 5% level
concern
Health consciousness H5b: An increase in health consciousness will increase consumer’s intention to purchase organic produce Significant at 1% level
H5d: The effect of health consciousness on organic purchase intentions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes Significant at 5% level
Quality H7b: An increase in quality will increase consumer’s intention to purchase organic produce Significant at 5% level
Subjective norms H8a: The stronger the subjective norms, the more likely a consumer will have positive attitudes towards organic Significant at 5% level
produce
H8b: The stronger the subjective norms, the more likely a consumer will intend to purchase organic produce Significant at 1% level
H8d: The effect of subjective norms on organic purchase intentions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes Significant at 1% level
H8e: The effect of subjective norms on organic purchase behaviour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions Significant at 5% level
Familiarity H12b: The greater the familiarity with organic food, the greater the intention to purchase organic produce Significant at 1% level
H12c: The greater the familiarity with organic food, the greater the purchase of organic produce Significant at 5% level
H12d: The effect of familiarity on organic purchase intentions will be mediated by green purchasing attitudes Significant at 1% level
H12e: The effect of familiarity on organic purchase behaviour will be mediated by green purchasing intentions Significant at 5% level

5.6. Limitations consumption. Research has shown that university educated indi-
viduals have more positive attitudes towards organics (Magnusson
The interrelationships that may exist between the independent et al., 2001) and higher education levels are associated with higher
variables were not examined as this was beyond the scope of this levels of organic consumption (Lockie et al., 2004). As the partici-
study. Although these relationships may have significant impacts pants of this study were university students, the level of education
on organic purchase attitudes, intentions and behaviours and may have resulted in unexpectedly optimistic responses to organic
should therefore be investigated in further organic research. food. This suggestion is consistent with Grunert and Juhl (1995)
The generalisability of this study is also questionable. As the who suggest future studies should look at different samples within
sample involved Victorian residents, their responses may not be countries to see if the theories hold for all consumer groups.
representative of wider Australians. Also, as a convenience sample
was used that only included university students, the sample is not 5.7. Future research
generalisable to the whole population and may not be reflective of
all young Australians due the reason discussed above. Overall con- Future research should take into account the limitations of this
sumers with different age ranges, education levels and incomes study, in order to advance our knowledge of organic purchases.
should be taken into account in future research. Studies could explore the interrelationships between the indepen-
The fact that university students were involved may also distort dent variables and the impact this has on organic attitudes, inten-
the results as research indicates that education levels affect organic tions and behaviours. Further research should also take into

Table 6
Descriptive statistics.

Variable Number of items Mean Standard deviation Reliability (Cronbach’s alpha)

Price consciousness 4 13.28 3.41 0.757
Knowledge of action 3 9.38 2.39 0.521
Evaluation 2 6.64 1.68 0.715
Subjective norms 4 9.89 3.61 0.804
Purchase intentions 2 5.65 1.71 0.654
Availability 4 11.75 2.94 0.757
Quality 3 9.01 2.12 0.856
Familiarity 3 7.14 2.62 0.783
Risk aversion 4 32.60 5.71 0.872
Belief 2 9.01 2.64 0.849
Information 2 9.45 1.81 0.692
Objective knowledge 3 18.56 4.32 0.723
Subjective knowledge 9 27.97 7.38 0.914
Health consciousness 3 9.78 2.53 0.849
Environmental concern 3 47.43 7.77 0.827
Attitudes 6 88.3651 27.96 0.662
Perceived control 1 3.38 1.26 N/A
Convenience 1 3.06 1.11 N/A
Expenditure 1 25.13 89.25 N/A
Willingness to pay 1 1.91 0.86 N/A
Gender 1 1.65 0.47 N/A
Age 1 2.00 0.00 N/A
Income 1 2.88 1.85 N/A
Household size 1 3.20 1.21 N/A
104 S. Smith, A. Paladino / Australasian Marketing Journal 18 (2010) 93–104

account additional variables, to get a richer insight into the deci- Hutchins, R., Greenhalgh, L., 1997. Organic confusion: sustaining competitive
advantage. British Food Journal 99 (9), 336–338.
sion making process of consumers. This is also a need for further
Kalafatis, S., Pollard, M., East, R., Tsogas, M., 1999. Green marketing and Ajzen’s
testing of these findings in order to increase generalisability. theory of planned behaviour: a cross-market examination. Journal of Consumer
As has been shown in this study, little research has been done in Marketing 16 (5), 441–460.
the Australian context. Due to this, additional research is needed Kristensen, K., Grunert, S.C. 1991. The effect of ecological consciousness on the
demand for organic foods. In: Bradley, F. (Eds.), Marketing Thought around the
that looks specifically at Australian consumers and their motiva- World, Proceedings of European Marketing Academy Conference, Dublin, pp.
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ture research studies should look at different samples within Laroche, M., Bergeron, J., Barbaro-Forleo, G., 2001. Targeting consumers whoa re
willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products. Journal of Consumer
countries to see if the theories hold for all consumer groups. Fur- Marketing 18 (6), 503–520.
ther research within Australia would also examine the generalis- Lea, E., Worsley, T., 2005. Australians’ organic food beliefs, demographics and
ability of the results obtained in this study. Research should also values. British Food Journal 107 (11), 855–869.
Lockie, S., Lyons, K., Lawrence, G., Grice, J., 2004. Choosing organics: a path analysis
be expanded with consumers in different areas to verify the gener- of factors underlying the selection of organic food among Australian consumers.
alisability of previous research (McEachern and Willock, 2004). A Appetite 43, 135–146.
longitudinal study would also help to address whether changes Lockie, S., Lyons, K., Lawrence, G., Mummery, K., 2002. Eating ‘Green’: motivations
behind organic food consumption in Australia. European Society for Rural
in consumer preferences happen over time. Sociology 41 (1), 23–40.
Future research should also focus on segmentation of the organ- Lyons, K., Lockie, S., Lawrence, G., 2001. Consuming ‘Green’: the symbolic
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Magnusson, M., Arvola, A., Hursti, U., Aberg, L., Sjoden, P., 2001. Attitudes towards
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2005). This is important, as it is possible that different motivations Results from a qualitative study. British Food Journal 104 (3/4/5), 345–352.
McEachern, M., McClean, P., 2002. Organic purchasing motivations and attitudes:
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Moorman, C., Diehl, K., Brinberg, D., Kidwell, B., 2004. Subjective knowledge, search
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