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Lecture/Textbook notes

Introduction to Canadian Politics (University of the Fraser Valley)

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Chapter 1- Rules of the Game - Engaging Canadian Politics - Dr.

Hamish Telford (2021)

Definitions

Political Party- An organization designed to get its candidates elected to Parliament. Political
parties are the primary connection between voters and Parliament.

House of Commons- The lower branch of Parliament where there are 338 members who are
elected by the people

Parliament- The legislative branch of government in Canada, consisting of the house of

Commons, the Senate, and the Crown.

Senate- The upper chamber of Parliament where there are 105 members who are appointed
until age 75 by the Crown on the advice of the prime minister.

Governor-General- The Queen’s representative in Canada, and the formal head of the
executive branch of government.

Prime Minister- The leader of the government in Parliament. By convention, the prime
minister is an elected member of the House of Commons.

Confidence- The ability of the government to command majority support in Parliament; it is

the first rule of responsible government.

Majority Government- When one political party wins more than half the seats in Parliament.

Minority Government- When a political party forms the government with fewer than half the
seats in Parliament.

Rule of Law- The principle that governments not only make the law but must follow the law
as well. It is one of the hallmarks of a free society.

Statutory Laws- The laws made by Parliament

Conventions- Unwritten rules of the Canadian political system. Many conventions were
inherited from Great Britain’s system of responsible government in 1867, while other
conventions have emerged in Canada over time through political practice.

Rules of Thumb- Non-binding, informal unwritten rules. Some rules of thumb may emerge
as conventions or become enshrined in law over time.

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Institutional Approach- One type of approach used in the study of politics that analyzes the
rules of the game and their effects on the political system.

Totalitarian Regimes- Governments that maintain total control over the societies they
govern. They are typically led by a single dictator.

Responsible Government- The Canadian system of government (inherited from Great

Britain) in which ministers are responsible to Parliament and the Crown.

Federalism- A system of government with two constitutionally entrenched orders of

government. One government is responsible for matters pertaining to the entire country, and
the other order of government provides a range of services at a more local level. In Canada,
the two orders of government are the federal government in Ottawa and the 10 provinces.
(The are separate entitites under the authority of the federal government.)

Bicameral Legislature- A legislature that has two chambers. The Parliament of Canada is a
bicameral legislature: the House of Commons is the elected lower chamber, and the Senate is
the appointed upper chamber.

Sovereign- Literally means “supremely powerful.”

Intergovernmental Relations- The interaction between the different governments in a

federation, especially between the federal government and the provinces, but also between
provinces and municipalities, Aboriginal peoples and governments of all levels, and even the
relationships across the border with state governments.

Indian Act- Federal legislation that defines the legal status of “Indian” peoples in Canada and
regulates the management of “Indian” lands and reserves.

Introduction

-338 seats in the House of Commons (2)

-Majority win is at least 170 seats

What is Politics.

-Politics is a process of deciding who gets to govern (3)

-It is also about how people govern.
-David Easton, a Canadian political scientist, argued that politics was the authoritative
allocation of values for society.

The Rules of the Game

-Canada is a constitutional democracy; governed by a set of laws.

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-Politics is about conflicts over the good life and the right way to govern society (5)
-Societies without political conflicts are governed by totalitarian regimes.

Confederation and the British North America Act 1867

-The Canadian constitution is partly written and partly unwritten (6)

-Pre-constitution documents such as the Royal Proclamation (1763), the Quebec Act (1774),
the Constitutional Act (1791) and (1840) Act of Union still hold symbolic importance and
some legal importance.
-Quebec never officially endorsed the Constitution Act of 1982, which includes the Charter of
Rights and Freedoms.
-Aboriginal people still seek self-government.

-The British North America Act (BNA) came into effect on July 1st, 1867 (Canada Day). (7)

-At the end of the BNA, PEI and Newfoundland opted not to join Canada. (8)
-4 Provinces formed Canada, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.

-Canada did not “own” its constitution and due to laws in Great Britain, it could only be
changed by the British Parliament (09)
-The Supreme Court of Canada was created in 1875
-The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London remained the final court of appeal
for Canadian cases until 1949.

Governing Principles of the Constitution Act 1867

Responsible Government
-The British parliament operates according to tradition and convention. (10)
-Canada adopted these traditions and conventions.

-The first rule of responsible government is that the ministry must maintain the confidence of
Parliament. (11)
-When a governing party has less than a majority of seats, it requires the support of one or
more of the opposition parties to maintain the confidence of the House.

Summary

-A majority government exists when one political party forms a government with more than
half the seats in Parliament; a minority government exists when a political party forms the
government with fewer than half the seats in Parliament.

-Politics is about a search for the “good life.”

-The rule of law is the principle that governments not only make the law but must follow the
law as well

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-The constitution is Canada’s master law, but the rules of the game also include statutory laws
(laws made by Parliament), conventions (unwritten rules adopted from the British
Parliamentary tradition), and rules of thumb (non-binding unwritten rules).
-Responsible government emerged in the 17th century when the Crown transferred
responsibility for governing the country to the ministers in Parliament, led by the prime
minister, who must maintain the confidence to keep governing until the next election.
-In a federal political system, there are two constitutionally entrenched orders of government
that are both supreme in their spheres of jurisdiction. In Canada, the federal government in
Ottawa governs the whole country in certain matters, and 10 provincial governments are
responsible for other matters.

Week 1 Class- Introduction

Politics and Criminology

-The law is the product of politics.
-Most Prime Ministers were Lawyers prior to becoming PM.

Politics- Greek word politikos - which means citizens

-The word politikos also gives rise to the word police.

-When an election is held and who will form a government can be dictated by the crown
(Queen).
-Our political system is centered around the crown, the crown in theory could be the first
political principal.
-To rid the system of the queen would require Canada to create a new constitutional system,
which in the current time is nearly impossible. The last constitutional change was in 1982
with the adding of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Canadian Oath of Citizenship

I swear (or affirm) that

I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second, Queen
of Canada, Her Heirs and Successors, and that I will faithfully observe the laws of Canada,
including the Constitution, which recognizes and affirms the Aboriginal and treaty rights of
First Nations, Inuit, and Metis peoples, and fulfill my duties as a Canadian citizen.

What are the Duties of a Canadian Citizen

-Follow the law

-Defend the charter rights and follow them
-Pay taxes and ensure the safety of citizens and people within Canada

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James Madison- The Challenge of Government

“If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men,
neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a
government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this:
You must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place, oblige it
to control itself. A dependence on the people is no doubt the primary control of the
government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions.”

Participating in the Political System

-We need to know how our system works and what are the goings-on in our country.
The Canadian Electoral System

Single Member Plurality Electoral System (First Past the Post)

Week 1 Lecture 1- Rules of the Game- Dr. Hamish Telford.

The Rule of Law
-The rule of law is the principle that governments not only make the law but they must follow
the law as well.
-Dictators often “never break the law” as when they get called out for doing so, they simply
create new laws.
-In Canada, those who make the law must also follow the laws they create.

Rules of the Game

Most Formal
Constitutional Law (all other laws must follow this)
Statutory Law
Conventions
Rules-of-Thumb
Least Formal

Preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867

“The provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to
be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, with a constitution similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom.”

Week 1 Lecture 2- Responsible Government- Dr. Hamish Telford.

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Responsible Government
-The Canadian system of government (inherited from the United Kingdom) in which
ministers - starting with the prime minister - are responsible to parliament and the Crown
-The Queen is the head of state, the prime minister and the head of government.

The Crown is the First Principle of the Canadian Government.

King John (1166-1216)

-Consistently lost wars
-Created new wars to “regain his honour”
-Increased taxes to pay off the expenses of war.
Magna Carta 1215.

-Nobility (paid the most taxes) became upset with the increase of taxes
-Confronted John, due to his desperation, forced him to sign the Magna Carta
-This meant the King would consult the people before increasing taxes.
-Parliament was created as a meeting space between the King and the people.

Bicameral Parliament is Formed.

-The common people became unhappy with taxes as well, a bicameral parliament was
formed.

United Kingdom Canada

House of Lords Senate

(Appointed) (Appointed)

House of Commons House of Commons

(Voted) (Voted)

Glorious Revolution 1688

-William III of England

-Gave power to his parliament to govern.
-Was allowed to hold the throne but with conditions.

First Rule of Responsible Government

-The crown assumes that the government is governing responsibly so long as it commands
the CONFIDENCE of parliament.
-That is, as long as the government commands the support of a majority in parliament.

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Majority Government- Majority of seats won.

Minority Government- Most seats, not enough for the majority but allowed to govern with
the consent of other parties.

Key Points about Responsible Government

-In our system of government, the ministers in parliament - led by the prime minister -
assume the responsibility for governing the country on behalf of the Crown.
-Maintaining the confidence of parliament is the first rule of responsible government.

Week 1 Lecture 3- Federalism- Dr. Hamish Telford

Federalism

-In a federal political system, there are two constitutionally entrenched orders of government
that are both supreme - or sovereign - in their spheres of jurisdiction.
-Sir John A Macdonald was not a fan of Federalism (favored a one government system like
the UK) but knew that Canada would not be able to unite without different levels of
governments dealing with region-specific issues.
-Federalism is the starting point for all knowledge in Canada.

Division of Powers in the Constitution Act, 1867

Section 91 Section 92
Powers of the Federal Government Powers of the Provincial Governments

The military Health care

Trade and commerce Municipal governments

Currency and banking Licenses

Indians and land reserved for Indians Property and civil rights

Criminal law The administration of justice

Other Governments in Canada

Governments of territories Municipal governments

Aboriginal governments

Chapter 2 - The Political Culture of Canada - Engaging Canadian

Politics - Dr. Hamish Telford (2021).

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Definitions

Ideologies- Specific bundles of ideas about politics and the good life, such as liberalism,
conservatism, and socialism. Ideologies help people explain political phenomena, they allow
people to evaluate good and bad, and they equip people with a program or agenda for
political action.

Political Culture- The sum total of political beliefs in a country. It includes the attitudes,
beliefs, and values that underpin the political system.

Neo-Liberals or Libertarians- Modern adherents of classical liberalism.

Cleavages- The enduring political divisions in a country, such as language, region, urban-
rural, gender, race, and class, among others.

Identity Politics- A political orientation that is driven by one’s identification with one’s
language, race, religion, gender, nation, sexual orientation, or some other aspect of the group
one identifies with. Identity politics is often associated with groups seeking to free
themselves from discrimination by dominant groups in Canadian society.

Crosscutting Cleavages-When a second cleavage serves to create an alliance across the

primary cleavage. The principal cleavage in Canada has historically been language. French
and English. But the English-speaking community is further divided between Protestants and
Catholics. On some issues, English-speaking Catholics may have more in common with
French-speaking Catholics than they do with English-speaking Protestants and this reduces
the salience of the linguistic division.

Quiet Revolution- The transformation of Quebec from a deeply conservative society to a

progressively liberal society in the 1960s.

Revenge of the Cradle- A church-fostered policy known as la revanche des berceaux. The
church encouraged women to have lots of babies to prevent the assimilation of the French by
the English.

Nationalism- The passion some individuals display for their nation. It properly refers to an
identifiable group of people rather than a country; love of country is properly known as
patriotism. In Canada, many people in Quebec believe that Quebec is a separate nation.

Sovereignists- Quebecers who want Quebec to become a sovereign state, independent of

Canada.

Federalists- Quebecers who are not in favour of separation. They are committed to Canada,

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although many of them want to see changes to the way the federation is governed.
Populism- A theory that extends the notion of democracy beyond the election of the
government. It is the belief that major political decisions should be made by the people.
Populism can be left-wing or right-wing, and it is particularly prevalent in Western Canada.

Electoral Districts- The geographical constituencies in which Members of Parliament are

elected in Canada’s single-member plurality electoral system. There are currently 338
electoral districts in Canada, each with more or less comparable populations.

Riding- Another term for electoral district or constituency in Canada’s single-member

plurality electoral system. The term is uniquely Canadian.

Western Alienation- The disconnection many Canadians in Western provinces feel to the rest
of Canada, and the belief that the Government of Canada tends to make policies for the
benefit of the majority in Central Canada to the detriment of the West.

Gender Gap- The differing support political parties receive from women and men.

Introduction

-Political culture in Canada varies from region to region as well as different groups. (16)

Ideologies

-Ideologies are not perfectly logical or consist (17)

-Ideologies can and do change over time.
-Nobody adheres perfectly to a single ideology.

Liberalism and Conservatism

-Conservatives focus on the community while Liberals focus on individual freedom.

-Conservatives also try to maintain social order in the community, and the traditional way of
life.

-Conservatives believe in a natural social hierarchy while Liberals believe in equality. (18)

Noblesse Oblige- The belief that the rich should do their part to help the poor.

Democratic Socialism and Neo-Conservatism

-Social programs constructed from the 1930s-1960s created a massive debt and by 1970,
Canada had to borrow massive sums of money in which it still has not paid off. (20)

The Canadian Political Landscape

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Cleavages
● Language
● Region
● Urban-rural
● Gender
● Race
● Class

Language

-English/French speaking division predates Confederation by 100 years. (24)

-Quebec was a very conservative province historically, being overwhelmingly Catholic.

-Nationalism in Quebec rose after the Quiet Revolution, causing many in Quebec to question
their position in Canada. (25)
-Many wish to secede from Canada to protect their French history and language.

Region

-Older regions of the country are inclined to older versions of liberalism and conservatism.
(26)
-Newer parts of the country are receptive to neo-conservatism and democratic socialism.
-The West, being settled by many from outside the traditional French/English &
Protestant/Catholic groups, has a tendency to form new parties as they do not align with the
traditional parties.

Summary

-Political culture refers to the sum total of political values, attitudes, and beliefs in a country.
-Ideologies are specific bundles of ideas about politics and the good life, such as liberalism,
conservatism, and socialism. Ideologies help people explain political phenomena, they allow
people to evaluate good and bad, and they equip people with a program or agenda for
political action.
-Cleavages are enduring political divisions in a country.
-Liberalism is the ideology of individual liberty; conservatism is about maintaining order and
tradition in the community; democratic socialism is focused on achieving economic equality;
neo-conservatism is focused on economic growth mainly by lowering taxes and government
regulations coupled with moral traditionalism and reducing crime.
-The Liberal Party represents a blend of classical liberalism and democratic socialism; the
NDP represents the ideology of democratic socialism with a touch of liberalism; the
Conservative Party of Canada is primarily committed to the ideas of neo-conservatism with a
touch of Tory conservatism.

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Week 2 Lecture - Political Culture - Hamish Telford

Political Culture

-Political Culture refers to the sum total of political values, attitudes, and beliefs in a country.
-Canadian political culture is characterized by a substantial consensus on the rules of the
game: the rule of law, democracy, equality, individual rights, and respect for minorities.
-The different conceptions of the good life can be bundled into a few distinct groups of ideas
known as ideologies, such as liberalism, conservatism, and socialism.

Ideology

-An ideology represents a fairly coherent and comprehensive set of ideas that explains and
evaluates social and political issues and equips us with a program of action.

The Historical Ideological Landscape in Canada

Liberalism
● Liberty
● Individualism
● Equality
● Reason
● Competition

Conservatism
● Order
● Community
● Hierarchy
● Tradition
● Cooperation

The Modern Ideological Landscape in Canada

Neo-Conservatism
● Equality
● Individualism
● Competition
● Order

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● Tradition

Liberalism

Conservatism

Democratic Socialism
● Equality
● Liberty
● Reason
● Community
● Cooperation

The Limits of Ideology

1. Ideologies are not perfectly logical or consistent.

2. Ideologies can and do change over time.
3. Nobody adheres perfectly to a single ideology.

Political Cleavages

-Political cleavages are enduring divisions between groups of voters with distinct political
perspectives, such as:
● Language
● Region
● Urban-Rural
● Religion and Multiculturalism
● Indigenous Communities
● Class
● Gender
● Age

-Canadians may get along well politically but often disagree on laws or rules.

-Liberals would oppose something such as CCTV while Conservatives would often support
it.
-Liberals would agree with something such as same-sex marriage whereas Conservatives
often would not.

-Neocons argues that government could not solve everything and that society should create
more wealth.

Cleavages

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-Language barriers make Quebec harder to win, Quebec is an important place politically.
-Political parties that can bridge cleavages are called brokerage parties.

Chapter 3 - Political Parties - Engaging Canadian Politics - Dr.

Hamish Telford (2021)

Definitions

Political Party- An organization designed to get its candidates elected to Parliament. Political
parties are the primary connection between voters and parliament.

Independent Candidates- Individuals running for election to the House of Commons who are
not affiliated with any political party. There are many independent candidates in each
election, but it is unusual for an independent candidate to win a seat in Parliament.

Party System- The number of parties active in the political system at any one time. The party
system may refer to only the dominant parties in the system or only the parties that elect
candidates to Parliament or all of the parties, depending on the context.

Fringe Parties- Political parties that garner only a small percentage of the overall vote.
However, they play an important role in Canadian politics because they often raise issues that
major parties choose to ignore and thus provide citizens with more options to participate in
the political system.

Tory Syndrome- The propensity of the Conservative Party to engage in internal conflicts over
leadership, especially after losing elections.

Party Discipline- The expectation that members of a party in Parliament will follow the
directions of their leader.

Caucus- All the members of a political party elected to Parliament. For the Conservative
Party, it also includes members appointed to the Senate. Justin Trudeau removed Liberal
Senators from the caucus in 2014, while the other parties do not have any members in the
Senate.

Political Brand- A marketing strategy designed to project a distinct image of a political party
and its leader with the goal of creating an emotional connection to voters.

Brokerage Parties- Parties that are able to appeal to the different regions of Canada,
especially the two major linguistic groups. Brokerage parties tend to be ideologically
pragmatic, following the wishes of the voters rather than standing on a set of predetermined
principles.

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Missionary Parties- Parties that are strongly committed to their political principles, and they
are generally not willing to compromise their principles for electoral advantage. They stand
in contrast to pragmatic brokerage parties.

Median Voter Theorem- The theory that the outcome of the election will be determined by
the preferences of voters in the middle of the political spectrum - which is the largest group of
voters.

Wedge Politics- When a political party chooses to take one side of a particularly “hot button”
issue to attract more voters and divide the remaining electorate among the opposing parties.

Dog Whistling- A political message that sounds innocent to the general population but
resonates with a target group of voters, typically by appealing to longstanding prejudices.

Introduction

-Political parties are “electoral machines” to get their candidates elected. (36)
-If a party wants to win the election, it must be broadly congruent with Canadian political
culture. (centre of ideological spectrum).

Canadian Party System

-The smallest 14 parties get less than 1% of all votes, making them fringe parties (37)

The Parties of Confederation: The Conservatives and the Liberals

-From Canada’s Confederation to the 1920s, Canada only had the Conservative Party and the
Liberal Party. (38)
-Internal divisions of the Conservative Party are known as Tory Syndrome.
-Conservatives have the tendency to split apart, come together under a powerful leader, win a
majority government and then fall into a succession of unsuccessful leaders.

-Liberals are also bound together by dominant leaders as well (39)

-For more than 60 years, the Liberal party was led by just two men.

The Rise of Prairie Populism

-Canada’s two-party system was broken in 1921, when the Progressive Party emerged in
Western Canada and elected 65 candidates to Parliament. (40)
-The Social Credit Party and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation both emerged from
the Prairies as a populist party.

The Progressive Party

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-Usually led by dissident Liberals (41)

-Party discipline is one of the unspoken rules of Canadian Politics
-Undisciplined (Ununified parties) are almost destined to fall.

The Social Credit Party

-The party argued that the government should print money and hand it out.
-Became the dominant party in Alberta and then BC

The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and the New Democratic Party

-The CCF was a democratic socialist party. (42)

-Became the first socialist government in North America
-Introduced universal healthcare in Canada

The Destruction and Reconstruction of the Canadian Party System 1993-2019

-Brian Mulroney won the 1984 election with the largest landslide in Canadian history.
-By the end of Mulroney’s 8 year term, parties like the Bloc Quebecois and the Reform party
had already been born.

Single Party Dominant System 1993-2006

-Mulroney was replaced by Kim Campbell, becoming the first and only female Prime
Minister in Canada but called an election within a few months and lost (43)
-In 1993, Canada moved away from a two-party-plus system to a single-party dominant
system.
-No other party was set to oppose the Liberal government in 1993, the Bloc coming in second
place in that election.

Rebuilding the Two-Party-Plus System

-The Reform Party attempted to reach more conservative voters outside of Western Canada
by the end of the 1990’s.
-In 2003, Stephen Harper managed to merge the Canadian Alliance (Reform) and the
Progressive Conservatives to form the Conservative Party of Canada.

Back to the Old Two-Party-Plus System

-In the 2011 election, The NDP finished 2nd, leaving the Liberals as the ‘plus’ party. (44)

-After the death of Jack Layton, the NDP dropped and dropped even further under Jagmeet
Singh (45)
-The Liberal party returned to the top spot in 2015 with Justin Trudeau

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Parties as Election Machines

-Parties are regarded as private organizations and are thus largely self-regulating (47)
-There are statutory rules governing political parties.

Leadership Selection

-Party leaders used to be selected by members of the party in Parliament. This came to be
seen as elitist and undemocratic.

-With the Reform party by the 1990s, the delegation convention method of electing a leader
became viewed as elitist and undemocratic (48)
-Virtually all parties at the Provincial level moved to a selection model that gave every
member of the party the opportunity to choose.

-All parties have converted to a version of direct election because it is “more democratic”
(49)
-This has made leaders more powerful now than it has in the past.

Candidate Selection

-Candidates for election are chosen by the members of the party in their constituency
association.
-The major parties usually field a full slate of 338 candidates, fringe parties find this difficult
to do so.

The Aggregation of Political Demands and Party Platforms

-Parties must have a general idea of what the public wants

-Parties may adopt different strategies in aggregating demands and platform building (50)

Party Organization and Financing

-Major parties have an organizational wing and a parliamentary wing.

-Conservatives and Liberals spend about $29 million an election.
-Jean Chretian introduced public financing for political parties that was $1.75/vote

-Parties still collected individual donations, contributions were limited to $5000/person under
Chretien but lowered to $1100 under Harper (51)
-2019 was $1600

Election Campaigning

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-Canadian elections have two distinct parts, a national campaign (focused on the leader), and
the second part is volunteers campaigning on behalf of the candidate (52)

The Air War

-National campaigns tend to be driven by technology.
-The invention of the TV shifted focus away from the local campaigns of the leader and
moved to the media's focus of the leader.
-Debates are hard to win but easy to lose.

-Election campaigns have always been about the image of the leader and the political
message (54)

The Ground War

-Almost every election has been won on the ground through volunteers campaigning directly
to voters.

The Golden Rules of Canadian Politics

-Parties must be reasonably centrist if they wish to win (55)

-Brokerage parties bridge gaps and divides in the political landscape

-Missionary parties are parties that do not stray from their core values or beliefs. (56)
-Parties like the Bloc, Green and Marijuana party are examples of single issue parties.

Ideological Pragmatism

-Most Canadian voters sit near the middle of the spectrum.

-The Liberal Party has been the most flexible party historically.
-Parties must be able to be flexible or completely pragmatic

Brokerage Politics

-Parties must be flexible and also be able to broker. (57)

From the Politics of Brokerage to Wedge Politics

-Conservatives created lines in the sand on particular issues so that the larger voting base on
that issue stayed with the Conservatives (60)

-Wedge politics are the antithesis of brokerage politics (61)

-Wedge politics can give a party an advantage but can also blow up on them.

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Chapter 5 - The Executive - Engaging Canadian Politics - Dr.

Hamish Telford (2021)

Definitions

Executive- The branch of government responsible for the execution of policy.

Responsible Government- The Canadian system of government - inherited from Great

Britain - in which ministers are responsible to Parliament.

Head of State- The official representative of the nation that is vested with all executive
authority. The Queen is Canada’s head of state.

Crown- Refers to the entirety of the Canadian state. For example, property owned by the
Government of Canada is Cornw property and government-owned businesses are called
Crown corporations.

Governor-General- The Queen’s representative in Canada, and formally the head of the
executive branch of government.

Lieutenant Governors- The Queen’s representatives in each province.

Cabinet- The central decision-making body in the Canadian political system. It is led by the
prime minister and includes the other ministers of the government.

Prime Minister- The leader of the government in Parliament. By convention, the prime
minister is an elected member of the House of Commons

Head of Government- The official elected leader of the government. Canada’s head of
government is the prime minister.

Queen’s Privy Council for Canada- A largely ceremonial body that advises the Queen on
matters of state related to Canada. It is made up of current and former cabinet ministers and
other prominent Canadians. People are appointed to the council by the governor-general on
the advice of the prime minister. It is a lifetime appointment, but only current members of the
cabinet are entitled to advise the Crown directly.

Ministers- Members of Parliament, usually in the House of Commons, who have been
appointed by the prime minister to sit with him or her in the cabinet. Ministers are

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responsible for the various departments and agencies of the government and collectively
compose the government of Canada.

Ministry- Refers to the Government of Canada, which is composed of ministers.

Political Executive- The prime minister and the ministers in Canada.

Formal Executive- The Crown in Canada

Conventions- Unwritten rules of the Canadian political system. Many conventions were
inherited from Great Britain’s system of responsible government in 1867, while other
conventions have emerged in Canada over time through political practice.

Letters Patent- A specific set of instructions from the British Crown to the governor-general.

Prerogative Powers- The powers of governor-general that have been reserved from the time
when the monarch exercised absolute authority in the British political system.

Speech From the Throne (or Throne Speech)- A speech that opens each session of
Parliament. The speech is written by the government but read in the Senate chamber by the
governor general. It outlines the government’s agenda for the new session of Parliament.

Coalition Government- A government made up of two or more political parties.

Prorogation- A temporary closing of parliament between elections. It marks the end of one
session of Parliament and gives the government the opportunity to plan for the next session.

Orders in Council- Decisions made by the cabinet that carry legal force.

Governor in Council- The formal decisions of the governor general taken on the advice of
cabinet.

Introduction

-After an election the governor-general will call upon the leader of the party that won the
most seats to be prime minister, asking them to form a government (86)

The Executive Branch of Government

Three Branches of Government

● Legislative
● Executive

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● Judicial

-Legislature makes laws for the country

-Executive enforces or executes those laws.
-Judiciary interprets the laws.
-All executive authority is vested in Queen Elizabeth II as of the Constitution Act of 1867.

-Ministers are responsible for the various departments and agencies of the government. (87)
-The formation of a government usually takes 6-8 weeks

The Formal Executive

Chapter 6 - Parliament - Engaging Canadian Politics - Dr.

Hamish Telford (2021)

Introduction

-Parliament has two functions: makes legislation, holds the government accountable. (107)

The Role of Parties in Parliament

-Party discipline is more rigid now because of the power increase of the prime minister. (108)

The Start of a New Parliament

Chapter 7- Federalism - Engaging Canadian Politics - Dr. Hamish

Telford (2021)

Introduction

-Canada’s system of Parliament was drawn from Britain, but federalism is an American
invention (136)
-Federalism is a system of shared rule.
-Sovereignty is divided between the federal and provincial governments.

The Challenges of Federalism

Four Challenges of Federalism

● Frequently conflicts between the two orders of government over division of powers in
the constitution.
● A gap between jurisdictional responsibility and fiscal capacity.
● Struggled to establish satisfactory institutions for intergovernmental relations.

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● Seeks to ensure the unity of the country while allowing regional diversity to flourish,
difficult balance.

Why Federalism

-Quebec and the Maritime provinces would not agree to enter Confederation without a
measure of self-government, forcing Sir John A. Macdonald to accept the federal form of
government. (138)
-When the constitution was written, 37 delegates from Lower Canada voted in favour, while
25 voted against (Quebec). In upper Canada the constitution was supported 54 to 8.
-Nova Scotia, PEI and Newfoundland rejected the constitution, PEI and Newfoundland
remaining colonies of Britain.
-Manitoba joined in 1870 but was denied ownership of its natural resources.
-The three Prairie provinces were initially denied ownership of their natural resources but
gained ownership in a 1930 amendment.
-The initial denial of ownership is believed to be one of the principal causes of Western
alienation.

The Division of Powers in the Constitution and the Formal Rules of Canadian
Federalism.

Chapter 8 - Patriation - Engaging Canadian Politics - Dr. Hamish

Telford (2021)

Definitions

Consociationalism- A system of government whereby different ethinic or cultural groups

share power, usually in the form of a coalition government with different parties representing
the different cultural groups in the country.

Responsible Government- The Canadian system of government (inherited from Great

Britain) in which ministers are responsible to Parliament and the Crown.

Statute of Westminster- A law passed by the British Parliament in 1931 that granted the
dominions in the British Empire control over their own foreign affairs.

Classical Federalism- The theory that each order of the government in the federation is
legally equal and should operate independently of each other.

Quiet Revolution- The transformation of Quebec from a deeply conservative society to a

progressively liberal society in the 1960s

Asymmetrical Federalism- A type of federalism in which the provinces exercise different

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powers

Spending Power- The ability of the federal government to spend monies on programs and
services that are outside its jurisdiction

Opt Out- The ability of provincial governments to remove themselves from national shared-
cost programs and receive compensation from the federal government. However, provincial
governments must still establish comparable programs with similar standards.

Parti Quebecois (PQ)- The main sovereignist party in Quebec. It is a provincial party that is
dedicated to making Quebec a sovereign country.

Sovereignty-Association- The proposal made by Rene Levesque for a new constitutional

arrangement between Quebec and Canada, where Quebec would receive more powers and
jurisdiction but would still be loosely affiliated with Canada.

Amending Formula- The procedure used to amend a constitution. Before patriation, Canada
did not have its own amending formula but instead relied on the British Parliament for
constitutional amendments.

Mega-Constitutional Politics- The political quest for an agreement on the fundamental

definition of the country and the principles on which the constitution is based.

Compact Theory- An argument that the Canadian constitution represents a compact or a

contract that can only be changed with the consent of the parties to the contract.

Two Nations Thesis- A version of the compact theory, which states that Canada was a
creation of two peoples- English and French.

Official Policy on Multiculturalism- A policy adopted by the Liberal Party of Canada in

1971 that declared Canada to be a bilingual and multicultural country.

Front De Libération Du Québec (FLQ)- A Quebec-based terrorist group that sought to

establish an independent, socialist Quebec through an armed struggle.

War Measures Act- An act of Parliament that was invoked during wartime that curtailed civil
liberties. It was invoked during the October Crisis in response to the kidnappings and
bombings conducted by the FLQ. It has since been replaced with the Emergencies Act.

October Crisis- A series of events that occurred in 1970 when the FLQ kidnapped a British
diplomat and a Quebec cabinet minister. The War Measures Act was invoked in response and
lasted for the duration of the crisis.

Gang of Eight- The premiers of eight provinces that opposed Prime Minister Trudeau’s plan

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to patriate the constitution. Only Ontario and New Brunswick supported Trudeau, and
consequently they were not members of the Gang of Eight.

7/50 Rule- The term commonly used for the general amending formula for the constitution in
Canada

General Amending Formula- The formula that was agreed to for the constitution in Canada.
It stipulates that for most constitutional amendments to be ratified, the federal parliament and
7 of 10 provinces representing 50 percent plus one of the population must consent. Also
known as the 7/50 rule.

Notwithstanding Clause- Refers to section 33 of the Constitution Act 1982. It allows

Parliament or a legislature to enact a piece of legislation that violates section 2 and/or
sections 7 to 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It expires after five years
and must be repassed if it is to remain in effect.

Night of the Long Knives- Refers to the episode during the patriation negotiations where all
provincial premiers but Premier Levesque of Quebec were included in a late-night, last-
minute deal on patriation.

Introduction

-The BNA act was a statutory law of the British Parliament (166)

The Canadian Constitutional Challenge: Maintaining Unity with Diversity

-John Stuart Mill believed that it is impossible to have a country with free institutions if that
country is diverse. (167)
-Lord Acton believed that co-existence between several nations is the greatest test for a state
as well as the best security of freedom.

A Brief History of Canada’s Constitutional Arrangements

-The British struggled to govern over the two cultures within Canada after the conquering of
New France in 1759

The Royal Proclamation 1763

-The Royal Proclamation under King George III could be considered Canada’s first
constitution (168)
-Abolished the French system of Law, replaced with common law.
-Required Catholics to renounce their faith if they wished to participate in Government.
-Eliminated taxes that landowners paid to the Catholic Church.
-The Proclamation recognized and endorsed the rights of Aboriginal people to govern

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themselves freely in the British dominions of North America.

-Provisions for representative government were not realized after British immigration failed
to materialize.

The Quebec Act 1774

-Allowed people to practice the “Religion of the Church of Rome”

-Catholics were allowed to work for the government without having to renounce their faith.
-Resurrected civil law, English criminal law was retained.

The Constitution Act 1791

-Worked until the 1830s when rebellions broke out in Upper and Lower Canada.

-Lord Durham saw that the only way to mend the broken political systems was to eliminate
the French community in Lower Canada. (170)
-A divided country could not have representative institutions.
-Believed in a policy of assimilation towards the French-Canadians

The Act of Union 1840

-Upper and Lower Canada were joined as the United Provinces, with the two sections being
granted an equal number of representatives in the legislature, this was an attempt ensure a
majority of English-speaking representatives held office (170)

The British North America Act 1867

-First constitution written for Canadians by Canadians (172)

-Canada continued to live under the monarchy in Britain
-The final court of appeal for Canadian legal cases remained in Britain
-Canadian constitution could only be amended by the British Parliament.
-The British enacted the Statute of Westminster which gave Canada independence in foreign
affairs.
-Canada would not become fully independent until 1982, when the BNA act was brought to
Canada.

The Transformation of Quebec

Maurice Duplessis and La Grande Noirceur

-Founded a party called Union Nationale (173)

-Was re-elected in 1944 and ruled Quebec until his death in 1959
-Rejected Canada’s idea of a welfare state after WWII
-In 1953, he formed a Royal Commission of Inquiry on Constitutional Problems

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-Did not expect much from the commission but three years later, produced the Tremblay
report which defined the state of Quebec and their position in Canada.

The Tremblay Commission

-Premised on the theory of classic federalism (174)

-Governments were coordinate but not subordinate to one another.
-Social assistance should be provided by the church and other charities.
-Believed social assistance policies should be provincial jurisdiction.
-He retained faith that federalism was able to reconcile the diversity of Canada

Jean Lesage and the Quiet Revolution

-Liberals came to power in the 1960 election.

-Quebec became more nationalist.
-Seperatist movement took off under his watch
-Was a strong supporter of the welfare state, wanted Quebec to create their own welfare state.
-Quebec needed access to the tax fields that the federal government controlled as well as
more constitutional powers.

-Pushed for asymmetrical federalism which would grant Quebec more powers than the other
provinces. (175)

Conditional Grants and the Federal Spending Power

-Due to spending power not being defined in the constitution, the federal government has the
ability to spend money on things that it cannot make legislation on.
-Quebec openly opposed conditional grants for provinces from the federal government.

Opting Out of Shared-Cost Programs

-In 1965, the federal government allowed provinces to opt out of national shared-cost
programs. Quebec opted out of 29 programs immediately.

-From the perspective of the indispensable condition, spending power breaks the bargain of
1867 and releases Quebec from the obligations of the contract, giving them the right to
separate from Canada. (175/176)

Rene Levesque and the Rise of the Parti Quebecois

-Formed the Parti Quebecois (PQ) in 1968 (176)

-Believed Quebec could be fixed by insisting on the autonomy granted to the provinces under
section 92 of the constitution

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-Wanted Quebec to become independent and assume decision making but wanted a monetary
union and common market with Canada (177)
-Two sovereign governments (Canada and Quebec) would collaborate on matters of mutual
interest.

Mega-Constitutional Politics and the Challenge of Patriation

-Before the BNA act came to Canada, Canadians needed to create an amending formula.
(178)
-The compact theory suggested that the BNA Act was a legal contract between consenting
parties.
-The two-nation thesis believed that Confederation was a compact between English and
French-speaking peoples.

Pierre Elliot Trudeau and the Patriation of the Constitution

-Agreed that Canada had to be a bilingual country (180)

-Special status for Quebec would violate the liberal principle of equality because it would
create two kinds of citizenship.
-Believed that Canada should have a bill of rights.

-Trudeau adopted an official policy on multiculturalism in 1971 (181)

The October Crisis

-The Front de liberation du Quebec (FLQ) kidnapped a British diplomat and a minister of the
Quebec government in 1970.
-Imposed the War Measures Act

The Victoria Agreement

-In June 1971, Trudeau reached an agreement with all provinces to patriate a constitution.
-Agreement included amending formula and a limited bill of rights.

-Quebec found that the agreement did not grant them special constitutional status and
revoked their support for the agreement, the constitution failed to come to Canada (182)

The First Quebec Referendum on Sovereignty

-First referendum was held in May 1980.

-60% of people voted no and 40% voted yes to form a sovereignty-association. (183)

The Final Push Toward Patriation and the Constitution Act 1982

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-Quebec joined with the provinces that did not agree with Trudeau, creating the Gang of
Eight (183)

The Reference Case on Patriation

-Court cases against Trudeau and his threat to act unilaterally in bringing the constitution
from Britain were launched in Manitoba, Quebec, and Newfoundland.
-The supreme court of Newfoundland found that there was no legal requirement for the
federal government to secure the consent of the provinces but that Canada’s constitutional
conventions required the federal government to obtain a substantial degree of provincial
consent before proceeding with a constitutional change of this magnitude.

The Night of the Long Knives

-A meeting between Trudeau and the premiers in Ottawa in 1981 (184)

-The issues on the table were the amending formula, the charter and Quebec’s status.
-Trudeau proposed that the amending formula take from the Victoria agreement (rule of 7)
but the Western provinces disagreed as they did not think Quebec and Ontario should get a
veto when they did not.
-If each province had a veto, the formula would be too rigid.

-The gang of eight felt that a charter would compromise the supremacy of Parliament and
provincial legislatures. (185)

-Trudeau had reached an agreement with all other provinces besides Quebec, to which
Quebec said there would be consequences. (186)

The Political Legacies of Patriation

-The Constitution came to Canada on April 17, 1982.

-The Quebec National Assembly rejected the Constitution Act 1982.

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