Meaning and Characteristics of a Research Problem

A research problem is the foundation of any scientific

investigation, arising from gaps in existing knowledge,
conflicting findings, or the need for further exploration.

Characteristics of a Good Research Question

- Clear: Unambiguous and easy to understand.
- Specific: Focused and connected to measurable data.
- Answerable: Clearly defines required data and how to
obtain it.
- Interconnected: Related to other research questions
meaningfully.
- Relevant: Interesting and worthwhile for research.

Problem Statement in Research

- Expresses the relationship between two or more
variables.
- Can be descriptive (observing occurrences) or scientific
(exploring relationships).
- Must be testable through empirical methods.
- Should avoid moral or ethical judgments, as they are
difficult to study.

Important Considerations in Selecting a Research

Problem
Before starting research, several factors must be
considered to ensure the problem is significant and
feasible:

1. Significance: The problem should contribute to

psychological, educational, or social theories.
2. Researchability: It must be solvable through
research, with relevant data available.
3. Originality: A new or unexplored problem is ideal,
though replication may be necessary for validation.
4. Theoretical Value: It should fill knowledge gaps and
contribute to theory development.
5. Feasibility: The researcher must have the skills, time,
resources, and cooperation needed.
6. Data Availability: Reliable data and collection tools
should be accessible.

Manifestation of a Research Problem

A research problem arises when there is something
unknown or unclear. It is typically manifested in three
ways:
1. Noticeable Knowledge Gap: A problem exists when
there is a lack of studies or information on a topic. For
example, if a community wants to introduce a mental
health program but lacks data on its effectiveness,
research is needed to fill the gap.
2. Contradictory Research Findings: When different
studies provide conflicting results, a problem arises. For
instance, some research may suggest reinforcement is
essential for learning, while others show learning can
occur without it. These contradictions prompt further
investigation to determine the conditions influencing
outcomes.
3. Unexplained Facts: When a researcher encounters a
fact but does not know the reason behind it, it becomes a
research problem. For example, if students with similar
IQ levels perform differently in school, the researcher
may explore other influencing factors, such as motivation
or environment.

Types of Research Problems

Research problems are classified into two types:
1. Solvable Problems:These can be answered using
empirical methods and observation. A solvable problem
allows for the formation of a testable hypothesis. For
example, “Does reward facilitate learning?" is a solvable
problem because it can be studied through experiments
and data collection.
2. Unsolvable Problems: These involve questions beyond
empirical investigation, often related to abstract or
supernatural concepts. For instance, “Is there a divinity
that shapes our ends?" cannot be answered through
observation or experimentation.

Characteristics of Solvable Problems:

- Can be tested using empirical methods (observation and
data collection).
- A suitable hypothesis can be proposed as a tentative
solution.

Characteristics of Unsolvable Problems:

1. Unstructuredness: The problem lacks clear focus,
making it difficult to define or study. Example: “Can
human nature be changed?"
2. Vague Terms: Key concepts cannot be clearly defined
or measured.
3. Lack of Data: Even if structured, relevant data cannot
be collected to answer the question.

Importance of Formulating a Research Problem

 1. Defines the research direction – A well-formulated
problem provides clarity and focus, ensuring that the
study follows a structured path.
2. Acts as a foundation– Just like a strong building
needs a solid base, a good research problem ensures
meaningful and reliable outcomes.
3. Determines research design – Influences the choice
of variables, sampling methods, data collection tools,
and analytical techniques.
4. Prevents vague and unreliable findings – A poorly
defined problem leads to weak conclusions and
wasted effort.
5. Contributes to knowledge – Helps fill research gaps,
resolve contradictions, and explore new perspectives
in psychology, education, and social sciences.
6. Ensures practical relevance – A well-structured
problem increases the study’s significance and
applicability in real-world settings.
7. Follows the GIGO principle – If the input (problem)
is unclear, the output (findings) will be flawed.

Steps in Formulating a Research Problem

1. Identify the Broad Field of Interest

 The researcher selects a general area based on their
interest, such as clinical or social psychology. This
provides direction for narrowing the topic.
2. Break Down the Broad Area into Subareas
The chosen field is divided into smaller, specific topics.
For example, clinical psychology can be split into mental
health, stress, or phobic behaviors. Consulting experts
can help refine these subareas.
3. Select a Specific Subarea
Since studying all subareas is impractical, the
researcher picks one that interests them the most. This is
done by eliminating less relevant topics until a
manageable and engaging one remains.
4. Raise Research Questions
The researcher formulates key questions related to the
subarea. These help define the study’s focus and ensure
clarity in what needs to be explored.
5. Formulate Objectives
Objectives are created from the research questions
using action-oriented terms like "to explore" or "to
determine." They provide clear goals for the study.
6. Assess the Objectives
The feasibility of achieving these objectives is evaluated
based on available resources, expertise, and time
constraints. This step ensures practicality.
7. Double-Check the Research Problem
Finally, the researcher reassesses their interest,
enthusiasm, and resources. If doubts arise, adjustments
are made before proceeding with the study.

Meaning and Characteristics of Hypotheses

Meaning of Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement that
suggests a relationship between two or more variables. It
serves as a potential answer to a research problem and
guides scientific investigations. Several experts have
defined hypotheses similarly:
- McGuigan (1990): "A testable statement of a potential
relationship between two (or more) variables, that is
advanced as a potential solution to the problem."
- Kerlinger (1973): "A conjectural statement of the
relation between two or more variables. Hypotheses are
always in declarative sentence form, and they relate,
either generally or specifically, variables to variables."
A hypothesis must be testable and measurable.

Characteristics of Hypotheses
1. Conceptual Clarity: The hypothesis must use well-
defined concepts that are easily understood and
commonly accepted.
2. Testability: A hypothesis should be formulated in a
way that allows direct testing to determine if it is true or
false.
3. Economy and Parsimony: Among multiple hypotheses,
the simplest and most economical should be preferred.
4. Relation to Existing Theory: A good hypothesis aligns
with established theories and facts in the field.
5. Logical Unity and Comprehensiveness: It should be
logically structured and comprehensive enough to cover
various aspects of the research problem.
6. Generality: A hypothesis should be broad enough to
allow multiple deductions but not so vague that it cannot
be tested.
7. Scientific Tools and Techniques: The hypothesis should
be testable using available scientific methods and data
collection tools.
8. Consistency with Other Hypotheses: While not
essential, a hypothesis that aligns with existing
hypotheses is generally considered stronger. However,
contradictions can be acceptable if supported by
scientific reasoning and evidence.
Types of Hypotheses
Hypotheses can be categorized based on their generality,
purpose, and complexity.

Based on Generality
1. Universal Hypothesis – Applies to all cases across
time and space. Example: “Adequate lighting increases
reading efficiency.”
2. Existential Hypothesis – States that a
relationship holds for at least one specific case. Example:
“There is at least one schizophrenic without delusions or
hallucinations.”

Based on Purpose
1. Causal Hypothesis – Suggests a cause-and-effect
relationship. Example: “Boring advertisements cause
viewers to change the channel.”
2. Descriptive Hypothesis – Describes a behavior
without identifying its cause. Example: “Channel
switching occurs more frequently when watching TV
alone.”

Other Common Types

1. Simple Hypothesis – Involves only two variables.
Example: “Rewards improve learning.”
 2. Complex Hypothesis – Involves multiple variables
and requires advanced statistical analysis. Example:
“Children from upper and lower socio-economic
backgrounds face greater adjustment issues than middle-
class children.”
3. Research Hypothesis – Derived from a
researcher’s theory and assumed to be true until tested.
4. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁) – States that the
independent variable affects the dependent variable,
serving as an alternative to the null hypothesis.
5. Null Hypothesis (H₀) – Suggests no effect or
difference, acting as a counterstatement to the research
hypothesis. If rejected, the alternative hypothesis is
accepted.

Functions of Hypotheses
Hypotheses play a crucial role in behavioral research by
guiding scientific inquiry and knowledge development.
Their key functions include:

Primary Functions
1. Testing Theories – Hypotheses provide a means
to test theories indirectly. If a hypothesis is supported by
research, it strengthens the related theory.
 2. Suggesting Theories – Sometimes, hypotheses
lead to the development of new theories by explaining
observed phenomena.
3. Describing Social Phenomena – Hypothesis
testing increases understanding of social behaviors by
either confirming or refuting assumptions, reducing
ignorance about the phenomenon.

Secondary Functions
1. Refuting Common Sense Notions – Hypotheses
challenge widely held but unverified beliefs about
behavior.
2. Raising New Questions – Research findings can
prompt reconsideration of existing explanations and
encourage further study.
3. Shaping Social Policy – Testing hypotheses can
influence policies on crime, education, rehabilitation, and
institutional reforms.
4. Providing Research Focus – Hypotheses help
researchers determine relevant data to collect, ensuring
clarity and direction in studies.

Meaning and Types of Variables

Meaning of Variables
A variable is any characteristic, condition, or attribute
that can vary and be measured in research. In behavioral
sciences, variables are manipulated, controlled, or
observed to understand their impact on behavior.
Examples include intelligence, anxiety, aptitude, income,
and education.

Types of Variables
1. Based on Causation
• Independent Variable (IV) – The variable
manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on
the dependent variable.
• Dependent Variable (DV) – The outcome variable
that changes in response to the IV.
• Extraneous Variable – An unmeasured variable
that influences the relationship between IV and DV.
• Intervening Variable – A variable that links the
cause-and-effect relationship.

2. Based on Research Design

• Task Variables – Characteristics of the
experimental task that influence behavior (e.g.,
complexity of a maze).
• Environmental Variables – External factors
affecting behavior (e.g., noise, temperature).
 • Subject Variables – Characteristics of
participants (e.g., age, sex, intelligence).
• Natural Subject Variables – Traits individuals
possess before the study (e.g., gender, anxiety).
• Induced Subject Variables – Traits influenced by
the experimenter’s instructions.

3. Based on Relevance
• Subject-Relevant Variables – Traits controlled to
prevent unwanted effects (e.g., intelligence in a memory
study).
• Situational-Relevant Variables – Environmental
and task-related variables controlled to avoid bias.
• Sequence-Relevant Variables – Effects caused by
the order of conditions (e.g., fatigue, practice effects).

4. Based on Measurement Unit

• Qualitative vs. Quantitative Variables –
Qualitative describes categories (e.g., gender), while
quantitative represents numerical values (e.g., IQ scores).
• Categorical vs. Continuous Variables –
Categorical variables have distinct groups (e.g., race),
while continuous variables have measurable values (e.g.,
height).