Nature-based solutions (or nature-based systems, and abbreviated as NBS or NbS)

describe the development and use of nature (biodiversity) and natural processes to
address diverse socio-environmental issues.[1][2] These issues include climate
change mitigation and adaptation, human security issues such as water
security and food security, and disaster risk reduction.[3] The aim is
that resilient ecosystems (whether natural, managed, or newly created) provide
solutions for the benefit of both societies and biodiversity.[4] The 2019 UN Climate
Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an e ective method to combat
climate change.[5] For example, nature-based systems for climate change adaptation
can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, and
providing local cooling.[6]: 310

The concept of NBS is related to the concept of ecological

engineering[7] and ecosystem-based adaptation.[6]: 284 NBS are also related,
conceptually to the practice of ecological restoration. The sustainable
management approach is a key aspect of NBS development and implementation.

Mangrove restoration e orts along coastlines provide an example of a nature-based

solution that can achieve multiple goals. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves
and wind on coastal settlements or cities,[8] and they sequester carbon.[9] They also
provide nursery zones for marine life which is important for sustaining fisheries.
Additionally, mangrove forests can help to control coastal erosion resulting from sea
level rise.

Green roofs, blue roofs and green walls (as part of green infrastructure) are also
nature-based solutions that can be implemented in urban areas. They can reduce the
e ects of urban heat islands, capture stormwater, abate pollution, and act as carbon
sinks. At the same time, they can enhance local biodiversity.

NBS systems and solutions are forming an increasing part of national and
international policies on climate change. They are included in climate change policy,
infrastructure investment, and climate finance mechanisms. The European
Commission has paid increasing attention to NBS since 2013. [10] This is reflected in the
majority of global NBS case studies reviewed by Debele et al (2023) being located in
Europe.[3] While there is much scope for scaling-up nature-based systems and
solutions globally, they frequently encounter numerous challenges during planning
and implementation.[3][11][12]

The IPCC pointed out that the term is "the subject of ongoing debate, with concerns
that it may lead to the misunderstanding that NbS on its own can provide a global
solution to climate change".[13]: 24 To clarify this point further, the IPCC also stated that
"nature-based systems cannot be regarded as an alternative to, or a reason to delay,
deep cuts in GHG emissions".[6]: 203

Definition

[edit]

Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion (Cape

Coral, Florida, United States)

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines NBS as "actions to
protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that
address societal challenges e ectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing
human well-being and biodiversity benefits".[14] Societal challenges of relevance here
include climate change, food security, disaster risk reduction, water security.

In other words: "Nature-based solutions are interventions that use the natural
functions of healthy ecosystems to protect the environment but also provide
numerous economic and social benefits." [15]: 1403 They are used both in the context
of climate change mitigation as well as adaptation.[16]: 469

The European Commission's definition of NBS states that these solutions are "inspired
and supported by nature, which are cost-e ective, simultaneously provide
environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such
solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes
into cities, landscapes, and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-e icient
and systemic interventions".[17] In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further
emphasise that "Nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the
delivery of a range of ecosystem services."[18]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report pointed out that the term nature-based solutions is
"widely but not universally used in the scientific literature". [13]: 24 As of 2017, the term
NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined and vague". [19]
The term ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is a subset of nature-based solutions and
"aims to maintain and increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of
ecosystems and people in the face of the adverse e ects of climate change".[6]: 284

History of the term

[edit]

The term nature-based solutions was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s. At
that time it was used by international organisations such as the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and the World Bank in the context of finding new solutions to
mitigate and adapt to climate change e ects by working with natural ecosystems
rather than relying purely on engineering interventions. [10][20][14]: 3

Many indigenous peoples have recognised the natural environment as playing an

important role in human well-being as part of their traditional knowledge systems, but
this idea did not enter into modern scientific literature until the 1970's with the
concept of ecosystem services.[14]: 2

The IUCN referred to NBS in a position paper for the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change.[21] The term was also adopted by European
policymakers, in particular by the European Commission, in a report [22] stressing that
NBS can o er innovative means to create jobs and growth as part of a green economy.
The term started to make appearances in the mainstream media around the time of
the Global Climate Action Summit in California in September 2018.[23]

Objectives and framing

[edit]

Coastal habitat protection at Morro Strand State

Beach in San Luis Obispo County, California

Nature-based solutions stress the sustainable use of nature in solving coupled

environmental-social-economic challenges.[10] NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity
conservation and management principles by "re-focusing" the debate on humans and
specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being and poverty
reduction, socio-economic development, and governance principles.

The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of
Nature for tackling societal challenges.[24] However, di erent stakeholders view NBS
from a variety of perspectives.[7] For instance, the IUCN puts the need for well-
managed and restored ecosystems at the heart of NBS, with the overarching goal of
"Supporting the achievement of society's development goals and safeguard human
well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience
of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services". [25]

The European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and
societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning natural capital into a
source for green growth and sustainable development. [22] Within this viewpoint,
nature-based solutions to societal challenges "bring more, and more diverse, nature
and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through
locally adapted, resource-e icient and systemic interventions".[26] As a result, NBS
has been suggested as a means of implementing the nature-positive goal to halt and
reverse nature loss by 2030, and achieve full nature recovery by 2050.[27]

Categories

[edit]

The IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an umbrella concept.[14] Categories and

examples of NBS approaches according to the IUCN include: [14]

Category of NBS approaches Examples

Ecosystem Ecological restoration, ecological engineering,

restoration approaches forest landscape restoration

Ecosystem-based adaptation, ecosystem-based

Issue-specific ecosystem-
mitigation, climate adaptation
related approaches
services, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction

Infrastructure-related
Natural infrastructure, green infrastructure
approaches

Ecosystem-based Integrated coastal zone management, integrated

management approaches water resources management
 Ecosystem protection Area-based conservation approaches including
approaches protected area management

Types

[edit]

Schematic presentation of the NBS

typology.[7]

Scientists have proposed a typology to characterise NBS along two gradients: [7]

1. "How much engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems is involved in NBS", and

2. "How many ecosystem services and stakeholder groups are targeted by a given
NBS".

The typology highlights that NBS can involve very di erent actions on ecosystems
(from protection, to management, or even the creation of new ecosystems) and is
based on the assumption that the higher the number of services and stakeholder
groups targeted, the lower the capacity to maximise the delivery of each service and
simultaneously fulfil the specific needs of all stakeholder groups.

As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along this
gradient both in space and time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected
and managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality and sustainability
goals):

Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ecosystems

[edit]

Type 1 consists of no or minimal intervention in ecosystems, with the objectives of

maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of ecosystem services both inside and
outside of these conserved ecosystems. Examples include the protection of
mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated with extreme weather conditions;
and the establishment of marine protected areas to conserve biodiversity within these
areas while exporting fish and other biomass into fishing grounds. This type of NBS is
connected to, for example, the concept of biosphere reserves.

Type 2 – Some interventions in ecosystems and landscapes

[edit]

Type 2 corresponds to management approaches that develop sustainable and

multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed).
These types improve the delivery of selected ecosystem services compared to what
would be obtained through a more conventional intervention. Examples include
innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multi-functionality;
using existing agrobiodiversity to increase biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience in
landscapes; and approaches for enhancing tree species and genetic diversity to
increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly connected to
concepts like agroforestry.

Type 3 – Managing ecosystems in extensive ways

[edit]

Type 3 consists of managing ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new
ecosystems (e.g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green
roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air). Type 3 is linked to
concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily
degraded or polluted areas and greening cities. Constructed wetlands are one
example for a Type 3 NBS.

Applications

[edit]

Climate change mitigation and adaptation

[edit]

The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an

e ective method to combat climate change.[5] For example, NBS in the context
of climate action can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal
defences, providing local cooling, restoring natural fire regimes.[6]: 310
The Paris Agreement calls on all Parties to recognise the role of natural ecosystems in
providing services such as that of carbon sinks.[28] Article 5.2 encourages Parties to
adopt conservation and management as a tool for increasing carbon stocks and
Article 7.1 encourages Parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological
systems through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural
resources.[29] The Agreement refers to nature (ecosystems, natural resources, forests)
in 13 distinct places. An in-depth analysis [30] of all Nationally Determined
Contributions[31] submitted to UNFCCC, revealed that around 130 NDCs or 65% of
signatories commit to nature-based solutions in their climate pledges. This suggests a
broad consensus for the role of nature in helping to meet climate change goals.
However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on-
the-ground.[32]

A global systemic map of evidence was produced to determine and illustrate the
e ectiveness of NBS for climate change adaptation.[12] After sorting through 386 case
studies with computer programs, the study found that NBS were just as, if not more,
e ective than traditional or alternative flood management strategies. [12] 66% of cases
evaluated reported positive ecological outcomes, 24% did not identify a change in
ecological conditions and less than 1% reported negative impacts. Furthermore, NBS
always had better social and climate change mitigation impacts. [12]

In the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, nature-based solutions were one of the main
topics covered, and were discussed as an e ective method to combat climate change.
A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led
by China and New Zealand.[5]

Urban areas

[edit]

Example of nature-based solution for an urban

area: Chicago City Hall green roof. One of the benefits is that it mitigates the urban
heat island e ect,
Since around 2017, many studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing
nature-based solutions in urban areas.[33][34][35]

It is crucial that grey infrastructures continue to be used with green

infrastructure.[36] Multiple studies recognise that while NBS is very e ective and
improves flood resilience, it is unable to act alone and must be in coordination with
grey infrastructure.[36][37] Using green infrastructure alone or grey infrastructure alone
are less e ective than when the two are used together.[36] When NBS is used alongside
grey infrastructure the benefits transcend flood management and improve social
conditions, increase carbon sequestration and prepare cities for planning for
resilience.[38]

In the 1970s a popular approach in the U.S. was that of Best Management
Practices (BMP) for using nature as a model for infrastructure and development while
the UK had a model for flood management called "sustainable drainage
systems".[39] Another framework called "Water Sensitive Urban Design" (WSUD) came
out of Australia in the 1990s while Low Impact Development (LID) came out of the
U.S.[39] Eventually New Zealand reframed LID to create "Low Impact Urban Design and
Development" (LIUDD) with a focus on using diverse stakeholders as a foundation.
Then in the 2000s the western hemisphere largely adopted "Green Infrastructure" for
stormwater management as well as enhancing social, economic and environmental
conditions for sustainability.[39]

In a Chinese National Government program, the Sponge Cities Program, planners are
using green grey infrastructure in 30 Chinese cities as a way to manage pluvial flooding
and climate change risk after rapid urbanization. [39]

Water management aspects

[edit]

Example of a Type 3 nature-based

solution: Constructed wetland for wastewater treatment at an ecological
housing estate in Flintenbreite, Germany
With respect to water issues, NBS can achieve the following: [40]

 Use natural processes to enhance water availability (e.g., soil moisture

retention, groundwater recharge),

 Improve water quality (e.g., natural wetlands and constructed wetlands to

treat wastewater; riparian bu er strips), and

 Reduce risks associated with water-related disasters and climate change

(e.g., floodplain restoration, green roofs).

The UN has also tried to promote a shift in perspective towards NBS: the theme
for World Water Day 2018 was "Nature for Water", while UN-Water's accompanying UN
World Water Development Report was titled "Nature-based Solutions for Water".[41]

For example, the Lancaster Environment Centre has implemented catchments at

di erent scales on flood basins in conjunction with modelling software that allows
observers to calculate the factor by which the floodplain expanded during two storm
events. The idea is to divert higher floods flows into expandable areas of storage in the
landscape.[38]

Forest restoration for multiple benefits

[edit]

Forest restoration can benefit both biodiversity and human livelihoods (eg. providing
food, timber and medicinal products). Diverse, native tree species are also more likely
to be resilient to climate change than plantation forests. Agricultural expansion has
been the main driver of deforestation globally.[42] Forest loss has been estimated at
around 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. Over the same period, Asia had the
highest net gain of forest area followed by Oceania and Europe.[43] Forest restoration,
as part of national development strategies, can help countries achieve sustainable
development goals.[44] For example, in Rwanda, the Rwanda Natural Resources
Authority, World Resources Institute and IUCN began a program in 2015 for forest
landscape restoration as a national priority. NBS approaches used were ecological
restoration and ecosystem-based mitigation and the program was meant to address
the following societal issues: food security, water security, disaster risk
reduction.[14]: 50 The Great Green Wall, a joint campaign among African countries to
combat desertification launched in 2007.

Implementation

[edit]
 Example of a city that uses nature-based
solutions: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, has been designated as the European Green
Capital 2023 in recognition of its e orts to promote sustainable transport, green
economy and environmental conservation.

Guidance for e ective implementation

[edit]

A number of studies and reports have proposed principles and frameworks to guide
e ective and appropriate implementation.[33][35][14]: 5 One primary principle, for
example, is that NBS seek to embrace, rather than replace, nature conservation
norms.[45][46] NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner along with
other solutions to societal challenges (e.g. technological and engineering solutions)
and are applied at the landscape scale.

Researchers have pointed out that "instead of framing NBS as an alternative to

engineered approaches, we should focus on finding synergies among di erent
solutions".[47]

The concept of NBS is gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g.
urban planning) and is now on its way to be mainstreamed into policies and
programmes (climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing
mechanisms),[18][10][48] although NBS still face many implementation barriers and
challenges.[11][12]

Multiple case studies have demonstrated that NBS can be more economically viable
than traditional technological infrastructures.[38][49]

Implementation of NBS requires measures like adaptation of economic subsidy

schemes, and the creation of opportunities for conservation finance, to name a few.[46]

Using geographic information systems (GIS)

[edit]

NBS are also determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include
traditional, local and scientific knowledge. Geographic information systems (GIS) can
be used as an analysis tool to determine sites that may succeed as NBS. [50] GIS can
function in such a way that site conditions including slope gradients, water bodies,
land use and soils are taken into account in analyzing for suitability. [50] The resulting
maps are often used in conjunction with historic flood maps to determine the
potential of floodwater storage capacity on specific sites using 3D modeling tools. [50]

Projects supported by the European Union

[edit]

Since 2016, the EU has supported a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform

(ThinkNature[51]) to promote the co-design, testing, and deployment of improved and
innovative NBS in an integrated way.[17] The creation of such science-policy-business-
society interfaces could promote market uptake of NBS.[52] The project was part of the
EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme, and ran for 3 years.

In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the Estonian Republic of the Council of the
European Union, a conference called "Nature-based Solutions: From Innovation to
Common-use" was organised by the Ministry of the Environment of Estonia and
the University of Tallinn.[53] This conference aimed to strengthen synergies among
various recent initiatives and programs related to NBS, focusing on policy and
governance of NBS, research, and innovation.

Concerns

[edit]

The Indigenous Environmental Network has stated that "Nature-based solutions (NBS)
is a greenwashing tool that does not address the root causes of climate change." and
"The legacy of colonial power continues through nature-based solutions." [54] For
example, NBS activities can involve converting non-forest land into forest plantations
(for climate change mitigation) but this carries risks of climate injustice through taking
land away from smallholders and pastoralists.[55]: 163

However, the IPCC pointed out that the term is "the subject of ongoing debate, with
concerns that it may lead to the misunderstanding that NbS on its own can provide a
global solution to climate change".[13]: 24 To clarify this point further, the IPCC also
stated that "nature-based systems cannot be regarded as an alternative to, or a reason
to delay, deep cuts in GHG emissions".[6]: 203

The majority of case studies and examples of NBS are from the Global North, resulting
in a lack of data for many medium- and low-income nations. [12] Consequently, many
ecosystems and climates are excluded from existing studies as well as cost analyses
in these locations. Further research needs to be conducted in the Global South to
determine the e icacy of NBS on climate, social and ecological standards.

Related concepts

[edit]

NBS is closely related to concepts like ecosystem approaches and ecological

engineering.[7] This includes concepts such as ecosystem-based
adaptation[6]: 284 and green infrastructure.[56]

For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for climate

change adaptation and mitigation by organisations like the United Nations
Environment Programme and non-governmental organisations such as The Nature
Conservancy. These organisations refer to "policies and measures that take into
account the role of ecosystem services in reducing the vulnerability of society to
climate change, in a multi-sectoral and multi-scale approach".[57]