MODULE 1 Waves

Periodic Motion: Motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion. Periodic motion is also called harmonic motion.
Example : Vibrations of strings of musical instruments, The motion of the earth and other
planets around the sun, Vertical oscillations of loaded spring, Oscillations of a simple
pendulum, Vibrations of atoms in a crystal
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A motion in which the acceleration of the body is
directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards the
fixed point.
The properties of simple harmonic motion are:
a) The motion should be periodic
b) When displaced from the mean position, a restoring force, directed towards the
mean position and trying to bring it to the mean position must act on the body.
c) The restoring force should be directly proportional to the displacement of the body
from its mean position

Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter

Consider a circle of radius ‘a’. Suppose that a body moves with as angular velocity  along the
circle. Initially (t=0) let the body starts from X axis. After a time interval t1, let the body changes
its position to Q. Draw a line from P perpendicular to X axis. It meets at M. The point M is the
projection of P on X axis. As the body moves along the circle, the projection M moves along
the diameter. As the body reaches Y axis, the projection meets the centre. As the body reaches
-X axis, the projection also reaches the same point. As the body moves down the circle, the
projection retraces its path along the diameter.
Hence simple harmonic motion may be considered as the projection of a uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle
All the Simple Harmonic Motions are oscillatory and also periodic but not all oscillatory
motions are SHM
Expression for the displacement of a particle executing SHM
• The body is at P in a time t, the angular displacement is θ.
Hence angular velocity ω =θ/t θ=ωt
From the triangle POM, cosθ = x/a x= acosθ or x = a cosωt
Similarly sinθ =y/a and y=a sinθ , y =a sinωt

x=a cosωt and y =a sinωt are equations for displacement and is known as the equations of
motion.
Expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle executing SHM
Differentiating the equation x=a cosωt with respect to t gives the velocity
Velocity = dx/dt = -a ωsinωt
Further differentiation yields acceleration
d 2x
Acceleration = 2
 a 2 cost   2 x
dt
(the minus sign shows that the acceleration is opposite to displacement x measured from the
equilibrium position)

The above equation can also be written as

d 2x
2x  0
dt 2
This is the differential equation for SHM.

Period (T) : The time required to complete one vibration is known as period.
If ω is the angular velocity and T is the period, then
2

T

Waves
A wave can be thought of as a disturbance or oscillation that travels through space-time, accompanied
by a transfer of energy.
Waves are of two kinds, longitudinal and transverse.
Transverse waves: with the surface going up and down, the high point of a transverse wave is a
called the crest, and the low point is called the trough. Eg water waves, electromagnetic waves(light
waves)
Longitudinal waves : consisting of alternating compressions and rarefactions in a medium Eg: sound
waves.
The compressions and rarefactions are in longitudinal waves analogous to the crests and troughs of
transverse waves

Wave parameters
Wave length() : The distance between successive crests or troughs.
Amplitude(A): Maximum height/depth of a wave
Frequency(): The number of crests or troughs pass a specific point during a unit of time
The velocity of a wave(v): can be expressed as the wavelength multiplied by the frequency.

The relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength of a wave

v  f
Differences between transverse and longitudinal waves

1.The vibration of the particles of the 1.The vibration of the particles of the
medium is at right angles to the direction medium is along or parallel to the
of propagation of the wave. direction of propagation of the wave.
2. A transverse wave consists of a series of 2. A longitudinal wave consists of a series
crusts and troughs. of
3. It is possible only in solids and at the compressions and rarefactions.
surface of a liquid. 3. It is possible in all types of media that is
4. There is no pressure variation solids liquids and gases.
4. There is pressure variation be maximum
at compression and minimum at
rarefaction.
1
Characteristics of a wave

a) Amplitude (A):The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of any

particle of the medium in the path of the wave.
b) Phase (ϕ): It represents the state of vibration of the particle of a medium with
respect to its mean position.
c) Period (T): The time taken by a vibrating particle to complete one vibration is called
the period.
d) Frequency (f): The frequency of a wave is the number of vibrations made by any
particle of the medium in one second.

If T is the period of vibrations of the particles of the medium, the frequency is given by

1
f 
T

e) Wavelength (λ):It is the distance travelled by the wave in the time in which the
particle of the medium completes one vibration or
it is the linear distance between any two nearest particles of the medium which are in the
same state of vibration.

In the case of a transverse wave, the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is equal
to the wavelength.
In the case of a longitudinal wave, the distance between two successive compressions or
rarefactions is equal to the wavelength.

f) Wave velocity (v): The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called the wave
velocity.
Wavelength λ is the distance travelled in T seconds, then wave velocity is given by
 
v  f
T

Sound waves
Sound is produced by a vibrating body. When a body vibrates, it produces compressions and
rarefactions in the surrounding medium that travels forward as sound waves.
a) Sound waves are longitudinal.
b) Material medium is necessary for the transmission of sound from one place to another.
c) The velocity of sound is greater in solids and liquids than in gases.
Light waves
Light is a form of energy that travels in a straight line. It travels at the speed of 3 x 108 m/s in
air or vacuum.
a)Light waves are electromagnetic waves
b)Do not require a medium for their propagation.
c)Visible light is having wavelengths in the range of 400 – 700 nanometres. Light waves are
transverse.
Principle of superposition of waves
The principle of superposition of waves states that if two or more waves travel in a
medium, each wave produces its own displacement and the resultant displacement of a
particle at any point is the vector sum of the displacements due to each wave.

Beats

The periodic variations in the intensity of sound due to the superposition of two sound
waves of slightly different frequencies are called beats.

When the intensity rises to the maximum, we use the term waxing of sound and when it
falls to the minimum, we use the term weaving of a sound.

One waxing and one waning constitute one beat. The number of beats produced per second
is called beat frequency.
Beats are used in tuning musical instruments.
b) Beats can be used to find the frequency of the given tuning fork.
c) Beats can be used in the detection of harmful gases in mines.
Ultrasonic waves
The frequency of sound between 20 Hz and 20 kHz is called audible frequency.
Sounds of frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasonics. Sound waves having a frequency
above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic waves. Due to high frequency, human ears cannot detect
ultrasonic waves.

Bats can produce and detect ultrasonic waves.

Ultrasonic waves produced by the bats, get reflected by some objects in their way. When the
reflected waves are received by the bats, they get an idea of the distance of the obstacle in
their path. This is how bats can fly in the darkness.

Practical applications.
a) Echo depth sounding:
Ultrasonic waves are used for detecting submarines and other underwater
obstructions.
b) Ultrasonic sound is also used for gauging the depth of seawater.
A beam of ultrasonic sound is directed towards the bottom of the sea and the total time
for the wave to go to the bottom and come back is measured. Knowing the velocity of
the ultrasonic waves, the depth of the sea can be calculated.
c) SONAR: SONAR is the abbreviation of Sound Navigation and Ranging. It is a technique
used for detecting and determining the distance and direction of underwater objects. In
the military field, SONAR is used to detect, identify, and locate submarines. Nonmilitary
uses of sonar include fish finding, mapping of the sea bottom, etc.
d) Detection of flaws in metals: Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect cracks or cavities in
metal castings
Module 1 Acoustics of buildings
The branch of science which deals with the planning of a building or a hall intending to
provide the best audible sound to the audience is called acoustics of the building.
Reverberation
The prolongation of audible sound in a room or hall after the sound has ceased to emit sound
is called reverberation.
Reverberation time
It is the time for which the sound persists in a room or hall after the original sound is cut off.
This time is measured from the instant the source stops the emitting sound. To produce the
best sound effects, the reverberation time should be as small as possible
The optimum reverberation time should be 0.5 seconds for speech and 1.0 to 1.5 seconds for
music
Methods to control reverberation time
a) By providing a few open windows.
b) By covering the walls with absorbent materials such as perforated cardboards, heavy
curtains, carpet on the floor, etc.
c) By providing rough and decorative materials on the walls and ceilings.
d) Cushioned seats. Such seats not only provide greater comfort but also act as good
absorbers of sound.
e) No large concave, spherical or cylindrical surfaces on the walls or ceiling of the hall
or auditorium. This will avoid excessive reflections of sound.
ECHO
An echo is a sound wave that has been reflected or otherwise returned with sufficient
magnitude and delay to be detectable as a wave distinct from that which was directly
transmitted. Echos often sound very clear because the magnitude of the sound and the
distance it travels makes it sound distinct
To avoid Echoes, the ceilings should be covered with suitable sound absorbents.
The roof and walls of the auditorium or cinema hall are generally covered with sound-
absorbent materials like draperies or compressed fibreboard to reduce reverberation. These
materials reduce the formation of echoes by absorbing sound waves.
Any undesired sound is known as noise. The external noises can be reduced by making the
hall soundproof and constructing small soundproof cabins for the machinery
MODULE II
Lens defects
1. Spherical Abberation
Spherical aberration is present when the outer parts of a lens do not bring light rays into
the same focus as the central part. Images formed by the lens at large apertures are
therefore unsharp but get sharper at smaller apertures.