TOPIC ONE

MEANING, NATURE AND RATIONALE OF MEASUREMENT AND

EVALUATION

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to;
i. Explain the meaning of the terms measurement, assessment, evaluation, statistics and test
correctly.
ii. Elaborate the formative and summative evaluation as used in education.
iii. Discuss different types of evaluations used in education.
iv. Examine the purpose of measurement and evaluation in education.
v. Evaluate why learners in education must undergo a course in measurement and
evaluation during their training.

INTRODUCTION
The topic focuses on what measurement and evaluation and its uses in
the context of education. Measurement is brought out by analyzing
keys terms namely, data (numeric information), and variable,
continuous and discrete variable, descriptive and inferential statistics.

In the topic the scales or levels of measurement are also discussed,

which should be of concern to any teacher because it dictates the
method of statistics (i.e. statistical analytical method), which can be
used with data.
Measurement and Evaluation deals with collection, organization, analysis and
interpretation of data from learners in order to use it in decision making.

Meaning of Terms
The science of measurement and evaluation also referred to as psychometrics has
technical terms that require to be defined operationally.These terms include the
following;

1. Measurement

In educational contexts, measurement refers to the systematic

process of assigning numerical values to a learner's attributes, such
as knowledge, skills, abilities, or attitudes, based on established
rules or standards. This quantification facilitates objective
evaluation and comparison of student performance.

A comprehensive definition is provided by the Oxford Bibliographies,

which states:

"Educational measurement is the science and practice

of obtaining information about characteristics of
students, such as their knowledge, skills, abilities, and
interests. It includes the development of instruments or
protocols for obtaining information, procedures for
analyzing and evaluating the quality of that information,
and strategies for communicating the information to
 audiences, such as educators, policymakers, parents,
and students."

This definition underscores the multifaceted nature of educational

measurement, emphasizing not only the assignment of numerical
values but also the development of appropriate instruments,
analytical procedures, and effective communication strategies to
ensure the accurate and meaningful interpretation of student data.

Historically, foundational work in educational measurement was

conducted by pioneers such as E.L. Thorndike and B. Wood. In 1923,
Wood published "Measurement in Higher Education," which
addressed fundamental measurement problems and proposed
principles to guide educational testing. These early efforts laid the
groundwork for modern educational measurement practices.

In contemporary times, the field has evolved to encompass

advanced methodologies and technologies, as reflected in
publications like the Journal of Educational Measurement, which
shares the latest methodological improvements and innovations in
educational measurement.

Overall, measurement in education serves as a cornerstone for

assessing and understanding student learning, informing instructional
decisions, and shaping educational policies.

Measurement refers to the process of determining the attributes

or dimensions of an object or a person. Measurement is the
assigning of numerals to individuals or objects in a systematic way
as a means of presenting the properties of the individuals or
objects. In measurement, instruments such as the tests, tape
measures, rulers or meters are used to quantify characteristics of an
object such as height, length in meters, thermometer to take
temperature of a person etc. In education measurement can be
done using a test designed to measure the knowledge level of a
learner in Mathematics, English or Geography.

This is a broad term that refers to the systematic determination of outcomes or

characteristics by means of some sort of assessment device. It is a systematic process
of obtaining the quantified degree to which a trait or an attribute is present in an
individual or object. In other words it is a systematic assignment of numerical values
or figures to a trait or an attribute in a person or object. What is the weight of the
meat? What is the length of the classroom? In education, the numerical value of
scholastic ability, aptitude, achievement etc can be measured and obtained using
instruments such as paper and pencil test. It means that the values of the attribute are
translated into numbers by measurement.
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical
object are determined (Size of classroom, farm). In education, measurement refers to the
process of determining or quantifying the presence of attributes or characteristics of
behaviour within a person or learners.

2. Evaluation
Evaluation refers to the process of judging something or someone
based on a set of standards. For example, making a judgement
about a learner who has scored 70% against a set criteria. The
placing of a value upon a raw score forinstance 70% as Grade A
is evaluation.

Evaluation in the context of educational and psychological

measurement consists of placing a value on something based on
the basis of some standards (Set criteria).

In educational contexts, evaluation refers to the systematic

process of determining the merit, worth, or value of educational
programs, processes, or outcomes. It involves collecting and
analyzing information to make informed decisions about educational
practices and policies.

Anderson and Ball (1978) describes evaluation as "the process of

systematically aggregating and synthesizing various types and
forms of data."

Michael Scriven, a prominent figure in the field, has significantly

contributed to the understanding of evaluation. In 1967, he
introduced the distinction between formative and summative
evaluation in "The Methodology of Evaluation," emphasizing the role
of evaluation in both improving programs during development
(formative) and assessing their overall effectiveness after
implementation (summative).

Types of Evaluation/Decision to be made

The different types of evaluation are: placement, formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluations.
a) Placement Evaluation
This is a type of evaluations carried out in order to fix the students in the appropriate
group or class. In some schools for instance, students are assigned to classes
according to their subject combinations, such as science, Technical, arts, Commercial
etc. before this is done an examination will be carried out. This is in form of pretest or
aptitude test. It can also be a type of evaluation made by the teacher to find out the
entry behaviour of his students before he starts teaching. This may help the teacher to
adjust his lesson plan. Tests like readiness tests, ability tests, aptitude tests and
achievement tests can be used. For example in the Competency-Based Curriculum
(CBC) there are three pathways in which students can be placed depending on their
ability, interests and aptitude. These are the Science,Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) Pathway, Social Sciences Pathway, Arts and Sports Pathway.
b) Formative Evaluation
This is a type of evaluation designed to help both the student and teacher to pinpoint
areas where the student has failed to learn so that this failure may be rectified. It
provides a feedback to the teacher and the student and thus estimating teaching
success e.g. weekly tests, terminal examinations etc. This refers to ongoing
evaluations during the teaching and learning process. You conduct the continuous
assessment tests (CAT), Rats, quizes, assignments etc.

c) Diagnostic Evaluation
This type of evaluation is carried out most of the time as a follow up evaluation to
formative evaluation. As a teacher, you have used formative evaluation to identify
some weaknesses in your students. You have also applied some corrective measures
which have not showed success. What you will now do is to design a type of
diagnostic test, which is applied during instruction to find out the underlying cause of
students persistent learning difficulties. These diagnostic tests can be in the form of
achievement tests, performance test, self-rating, interviews, observations, etc.
What are the major differences and similarities between formative evaluation and
diagnostic evaluation?
C). Summative evaluation
This is the type of evaluation carried out at the end of the course of instruction to
determine the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. It is called a
summarizing evaluation because it looks at the entire course of instruction or
programme and can pass judgment on both the teacher and students, the curriculum
and the entire system. It is used for certification. Think of the educational certificates
you have acquired from examination bodies such as WAEC, NECO, etc. These were
awarded to you after you had gone through some types of examination. This is an
example of summative evaluation.
NB: Evaluation hence involves making a value judgement in respect to a
particular attribute.

3. Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing,
presenting, and interpreting data. Data are the facts and
figures that are collected, analyzed, and summarized for
presentation and interpretation. Data may be classified as
either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data measure
either how much or how many of something, and qualitative
data provide labels, or names, for categories of like items.

Statistics is concerned with scientific methods of

collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting
(compiling) and analyzing data, as well as drawing valid
conclusions and making reasonable decisions on basis of
such analysis.

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

When analyzing data, such as the marks achieved by 100 students

for a piece of coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and
inferential statistics in your analysis of their marks.

As the name suggests, descriptive statistics is one which

describes the population.
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data
that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful
way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data.
Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make
conclusions beyond the data we have analyzed or reach conclusions
regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They are simply
a way to describe our data. Descriptive statistics are applied
to populations, and the properties of populations, like the mean or
standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the
whole population (i.e., everybody you are interested in). On the
other hand, Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard
deviation, are not called parameters, but statistics. Descriptive
statistics hence use such statistics as measures of central
tendency (Mode, Median, Mean), measures of spread (Range,
Quartiles, Absolute Deviation, Variance and Standard Deviation).

Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use the

samples to make generalizations about the populations from which
the samples were drawn.

Inferential statistics is used to make the generalization about the

population based on the samples.

As the name suggests, descriptive statistics is one which

describes the population while Inferential statistics is used to
make the generalization about the population based on the
samples.

A parameter is a number describing a whole population

(e.g., population mean), while a statistic is a number
describing a sample (e.g., sample mean). The goal of
measurement and evaluation is to understand
characteristics of populations by finding parameters and
samples by finding statistic indexes.

4. Assessment
The term assess is derived from a Latin word “asoidere” meaning “to sit by” in
judgment. There are many definitions and explanations of assessment in education.
Let us look at a few of them.

Assessment in education refers to the systematic process of

gathering, interpreting, and utilizing information about students'
learning to inform instructional decisions, evaluate educational
outcomes, and enhance teaching practices. It encompasses various
methods, including tests, observations, and assignments, aimed at
understanding and improving student learning.
Derek Rowntree (1987) defined assessment as occurring "whenever
one person, in some kind of interaction, direct or indirect, with
another, is conscious of obtaining and interpreting information
about the knowledge and understanding, or abilities and attitudes of
that other person."

Paul Black and Dylan William, in their 1998 seminal work

"Assessment and Classroom Learning," emphasized the role of
assessment in enhancing classroom learning. They highlighted the
importance of formative assessment—ongoing assessments
designed to provide feedback during the learning process—to
improve student achievement.

Richard Arends (1994) described assessment as encompassing "the

full range of information gathered and synthesized by teachers
about their students and their classrooms."

Hans Henrik Sievertsen (2022) discussed the multifaceted role of

assessments, noting that they inform students, parents, teachers,
and schools about learning progress, guide study efforts, and
influence educational and career trajectories.

These perspectives underscore the multifaceted nature of

assessment in education, highlighting its critical role in
understanding and enhancing student learning, informing
instructional practices, and shaping educational policies.

Assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that

educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic
readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs
of students. For example administration of tests (formal and
informal) to collect information regarding learners academic
activities and the interpretations to guide learning, correction or
placement.

Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known

objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing.

The Purpose of Measurement and Evaluation

The main purposes of measurement and evaluation are;
i. Placement of student, which involves bringing students appropriately in the
learning sequence and classification or streaming of students according to
ability or subjects.
ii. Selecting the students for courses – general, professional, technical,
commercial etc.
iii. Certification: This helps to certify that a student has achieved a particular
level of performance.
iv. Stimulating learning: this can be motivation of the student or teacher,
providing feedback, suggesting suitable practice etc.
 v. Improving teaching: by helping to review the effectiveness of teaching
arrangements.
vi. For research purposes. Helps to collect and analyze data that can be used in
research regarding certain aspects of education and schooling of learners. For
instance, to establish whether provision of bursary to students results in
improved learning outcomes.
vii. For guidance and counseling services. Measurement and evaluation
provides empirical data regarding behavior of students which can be used for
psychological support of learners.
viii. For modification of the curriculum purposes. Measurement and evaluation
may provide data that can be used to identify areas in education that requires
modification or improvement hence provides basis for curriculum review.
ix. For the purpose of selecting students for employment. Measurement and
evaluation helps in categorizing students for purposes of appropriate
placement in jobs.
x. For modification of teaching methods. It provides data in respect to
whether a particular teaching method is yielding results or not.
xi. For the purposes of promotions to the student. Helps in identifying
students who have acquired the required competencies or knowledge in order
to be moved to the next class or grade.
xii. For reporting student’s progress to their parents. Teachers need to be
accountable to parents by providing data on the levels of acquisition of
competencies or knowledge of learners. Academic progress of learners is only
reported when proper measurement and evaluation of learners is conducted.
xiii. For the awards of scholarship and merit awards. In order to award learners
with scholarships or any awards, proper measurement and evaluation is
conducted.
xiv. For the admission of students into educational institutions. Measurement
helps to provide data that helps in establishing whether learners have the
requisite knowledge to enable admission to a particular level of education.
xv. For the maintenance of students. For students to remain in a particular
programme, they must demonstrate that they are progressing as stipulated.
Measurement provides such vital information to teachers.

5. Test
Test refers to an instrument, tool or educational assessment
intended to measure a learner’s knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical
fitness or any other characteristics of interest to an examiner. For
example, a formal test in Mathematics, English, Chemistry etc.

Educational Testing refers to educational assessment including

the process of measuring capabilities for demonstrating mastery of
a skill or knowledge of a content domain of learners, using
instruments constructed for this purpose is called tests.
Achievement and Aptitude Tests
An achievement test is used to measure an individual’s present
level of knowledge, skills or performance. Such tests contain
items, questions and tasks that attempt to determine what an
individual knows or can do. Informal tests such as the class tests,
teacher made tests, continuous assessment tests (CATS/
RATS/QUIZES etc), end semester exams and formal tests such as
the national exams such as KCPE, KCSE etc fall in this category.

An Aptitude Test is used to predict how well an individual may

learn. Such tests may contain test items similar to those on
achievement tests, but are administered for the purpose of
inferring how well a person will do in some future situations.

Both achievement and aptitude tests measure the strengths and

abilities of the test-taker. However, aptitude tests focus on the
potential someone has to learn new things while achievement
tests focus on what has already been learned.

Quiz: Explain the difference between measurement and evaluation, assessment and
testing.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TESTING AND EVALUATION

Expected learning outcomes

By the end of this unit the learner should be able to;
i. Trace the historical development of testing and evaluation.
ii. Discuss contributions of some of the early thinkers in testing and evaluation.

INTRODUCTION
The history of mental testing in the 20th century can be divided into six periods; Viz.
(i) The Early Period
This is the period before American entry into world war I. it was a period of
exploration and theory development.

A number of scholars invented different scales as follows:-

Binet revised Binet-Silon scales twice which were taken to united states by pioneers
in measurement such as Lewis Terman of stanford university.
In 1916, Terman published the Stanfored-Binet intelligence scale.
- Arthur Otis and Terman explored testing the mental ability of children
and adults in groups.
- Australian S.D Porteus came up with a maze test of intelligence for
people with hearing or language handicaps.
- In 1904 Charles spearman published two theories
(a) Statistical theory (to account for inconsistency in measurements of
human behavior which has developed into concept of reliability.
(b) Different measures of cognitive ability showed substantial
consistency in the ways in which they ranked people

(ii) The Boom Period

In this period, many advances and innovations were witnessed in the field
of testing and measurement. Robert Yerkes expanded Otis’s work to
develop and implement the first large-scale group testing of ability with
the Army Alpha (a verbal test) and the Army Beta ( a test using mazes and
 Puzzles). Army Alpha used multiple choice items. Woodworth personal
Data sheet was also developed to identify those emotionally unfit for
military service. The Alpha and Beta test were used to select officer
trainees and remove those with intellectual handicaps.
E. K. strong and his students began to measure vocational interests for
careers & major subjects consistent with their interests.
In 1929 L.L. Thurstone proposed ways to scale & measure attitudes and
values.
- High expectations about what test scores could tell us about people’s
abilities and character and this led to some using ethnic background
where whites were seen top in hierarchy with African ancestry labeled
“feebleminded”. This led to emergency of a number of critics such as
walter Lippmann questioning the tests themselves and conclusions
drawn from the test scores.

(iii) The First period of Criticism

This period covered a period of criticism and consolidation.
More tests were published e.g Original Kuder scales for measuring
vocational interests, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory,
Wechsler – Bellevue intelligence scale and in mathematics - Factor
analysis,
In 1035, Oscar Buros initiated the Mental Measurements Yearbook
(MMY) where critical reviews of test and testing practices could be
published.

(iv) The Battery Period

1940’s witnessed another world war and need for military service. Due to
war efforts, batteries of tests were developed to measure several different
abilities. These test batteries were used to place military recruits were best
suited thus reducing failure rates in various military training programs.

- Taxonomies of ability such as those of Bloom (1956) and Guilford

(1985) described range of metal functioning.
In 1950s, educational and Psychological testing grew in a business.
There was use of nationally normal, commercially prepared tests etc.
the scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAR) or the American College Testing
Program became almost universal requirement for admission to
college. Business, industry and civil service system made use of
measurements for hiring and promotion.
The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) was developed by U.S.
employment service. By 1954, American Psychological Association
published a set of guidelines for educational and psychological tests.
The wide spread use and misuse of tests led to a second criticism.

(v) The Second period of Criticism

By 1960s, the ability test scores of Blacks were lower than those of whites,
scores of women were lower than those of men in some areas hence test
were excoriated as biased tools of white male oppression. This period also
saw civil rights movement. In an attempt to scrutinize for biased content,
same tests were eliminated e.g SAT by university of California.
(vi) The Age of Accountability
Governments put greater faith in testing to determine whether government
funded programs were achieving their objectives.
- 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed
and federally funded education initiatives included requirements that
programs report some form of assessment mostly inform of
standardized test results.
- In 2002, president Gorge W. Bush singed the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) act into law with an objective that public school students
achieve high standards of performance where this meant testing. Thus
for one to graduate as student, he/she has to pass standardized tests.
This ensures that the schools are accountable