Mathematical

Models of Systems
(Ch 2)

1
 What is a Model?
A model is a simplified representation or
abstraction of reality. Reality is generally too
complex to model exactly.

2
 What is Mathematical Model?
A set of mathematical equations (e.g., differential
eqs.) that describes the input-output behavior of a
system.
What is a model used for?
• Simulation
• Prediction/Forecasting
• Prognostics/Diagnostics
• Design/Performance Evaluation
• Control System Design 3
 Ways to Study a System
System

Experiment with actual Experiment with a

System model of the System

Physical Model Mathematical Model

Analytical Solution

Simulation

Frequency Domain Time Domain Hybrid Domain

4
 A Real-Life Example:
A model of door closer

y(t)
k
f(t)
b
෍ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑦ሷ

𝑚𝑦(𝑡)
ሷ = 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑏𝑦(𝑡)
ሶ − 𝑘𝑦(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑦(𝑡)ሷ + 𝑏𝑦(𝑡)ሶ + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡)
is this a linear differential equation?
 Linear vs Nonlinear
Differential Equations
𝑎𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑑
Linear:
a, b, c, d are constants or functions of time
2𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 3𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 1
𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 3𝑡
Nonlinear:
a, b, c, d are functions of “y” or there are some transcendental
functions (e.g. sin y, ey, log y) in the differential equation
𝑦𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 3𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 1
𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 5𝑦 𝑡 = 1
6
 Linear Systems
A linear system satisfies the following properties:
– Superposition
𝑥1 S 𝑦1 𝑥2 S 𝑦2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
S

– Homogeneity
𝑥1 S 𝑦1

𝛼𝑥1 S 𝛼𝑦1

7
 Example
𝑦 = 𝑥2 is it a linear system?

For 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , and 𝑥 = 𝑥2 , we get

𝑦1 = 𝑥12 and 𝑦2 = 𝑥22

For 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , is the output equal to 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ?

𝑦 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 2 ≠ 𝑥12 + 𝑥22

Hence, superposition does not hold, not a linear

system!

8
 Linearization
If the system is nonlinear, you can linearize it
using the first two terms of Taylor Series around
an operating point 𝑥 = 𝑥0

𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 2
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑥0 + 𝑦ሶ 𝑥0 + 𝑦ሷ 𝑥0 +⋯
1! 2!

9
 Example
Linearize 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 around the operation point of x0 =3

𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑥0 + 𝑦ሶ 𝑥0 + …
1!

10
 Example

Obtain the equation of motion (EoM)

and then linearize it
T(t) around the equilibrium Q= 0 degrees.

massless rod

11
 Example

෍ 𝑇 = 𝐼 𝜃ሷ
T(t) ሷ
𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑀𝑔𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐿2 𝜃(𝑡)

𝜕 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 + |𝜃=𝜃0 (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )
𝜕𝜃

massless rod
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

ሷ
𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑀𝑔𝐿𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐿2 𝜃(𝑡)

12
 More Examples on Linearization
Obtain EoM

q(t)

F(t)

rod with a mass of “m” and

length “L”

Obtain EoM

fspring = ex -1

13
How to Solve Differential Equations?
Algebraic
Equations
Laplace
Differential Laplace
Transform
Equations: Equations:
Difficult to Easier to
solve solve

Inverse Laplace
Transform
Solutions

14
 Laplace Transforms
∞
• 𝐹 𝑠 = ‫׬‬0− 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = L 𝑓 𝑡

• Example: If f(t) = e-at , F(s) =?

1 𝜎+𝑗∞
• 𝑓 𝑡 = ‫׬‬𝜎−𝑗∞
𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 +𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗

15
16
Example: Mass Spring Damper
System under External Force

𝑘𝑦
𝑓 𝑓

𝑏𝑦ሶ

𝑚𝑦(𝑡)
ሷ + 𝑏𝑦(𝑡)
ሶ + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)

17
Example: Mass-Spring-Damper
• 𝑚𝑦(𝑡)
ሷ + 𝑏𝑦(𝑡)
ሶ + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)
• L 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑌(𝑠)
• L 𝑦ሶ (𝑡) = 𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑦 0−
• L 𝑦(𝑡)
ሷ = 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑦 0− − 𝑦(0
ሶ −)
• L 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠)

• 𝑚 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑦 0− − 𝑦ሶ 0− + 𝑏 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0− + 𝑘𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠

• 𝑓 𝑡 =0 →F s =0 𝑦
• 𝑦 0− = y0 𝑘𝑦
𝑓
• 𝑦ሶ 0− = 0
𝑏𝑦ሶ

18
 Example: Mass-Spring-Damper
𝑚𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑚𝑠𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑘𝑌 𝑠 = 0

Solving for 𝑌 𝑠 ,
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
𝑝 𝑠
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑞 𝑠
𝑞 𝑠 : Characteristic Equation, roots of the polynomial are called “poles”
𝑝 𝑠 : roots of this polynomial called “zeros”

The complex plane plot of the poles and zeros graphically portrays the character
of the natural transient response of the system.

19
 Example: Mass-Spring-Damper
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
Let’s assume
y0 = 1 m, m = 1 kg, b = 3 Nm/s, k = 2 N/m
𝑠+3 O X X
𝑌 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) -3 -2 -1

𝑠+3
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑠+3 +2j X
𝑠2 + 4 𝑠 + 4 2 X +2j 𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠2 − 6𝑠 + 13

XX O O
+3
-4 -3 -3

X -2j -2j X
 Example: Mass-Spring-Damper
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
Let’s assume
y0 = 1 m, m = 1 kg, b = 3 Nm/s, k = 2 N/m
𝑠+3 𝑠+3
𝑌 𝑠 = 2 =
(𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

Laplace
Differential Laplace
Transform
Equations: Equations:
Difficult to Easier to
solve solve

Question: How can we find 𝑦 𝑡 ?

Inverse Laplace
Transform
Solutions

21
 Example: Mass-Spring-Damper
𝑠+3 𝐴 𝐵
• 𝑌 𝑠 = = +
(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2) 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
𝐴 𝑠+2 +𝐵(𝑠+1) 𝑠+3
=
(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2) (𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)

• 𝐴𝑠 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐵 = 𝑠 + 3
𝐴+𝐵 =1 𝐴=2
ൠ→
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3 𝐵 = −1

𝐴 𝐵 2 1
• 𝑌 𝑠 = + = −
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+1 𝑠+2

22
 Example: Mass-Spring-Damper
2 1
• 𝑌 𝑠 = −
𝑠+1 𝑠+2

1 1
• 𝑦 𝑡 =2 L−1 − L−1
𝑠+1 𝑠+2

1
• L 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 → (using Table 2.3)
𝑠+𝑎
−1
1
L = 𝑒 −𝑡
𝑠+1
1
L−1 = 𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑠+2
• 𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
23
 Inverse Laplace: Method of
Partial Fractions
𝑝 𝑠
• 𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑞 𝑠

Rules:
1. The degree of 𝑝 𝑠 must be less than or equal to
that of 𝑞 𝑠 . Otherwise, divide 𝑝 𝑠 by 𝑞 𝑠 and
work with the remaining terms.
2. We must know the factors of 𝑞 𝑠 .

24
 Possible Cases:

Case A) Distinct poles

…….. 𝐴 𝐵
• 𝑌 𝑠 = = +
(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2) 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
…….. 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
• 𝑌 𝑠 = = +
𝑠(𝑠 2 +1) 𝑠 𝑠 2 +1

25
Case B) Repeated poles
…….. 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
• 𝑌 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠+2 3 𝑠+2 𝑠+2 2 𝑠+2 3
…….. 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
• 𝑌 𝑠 = = + 2
(𝑠 2 +5𝑠+3)2 𝑠 2 +5𝑠+3 (𝑠 +5𝑠+3)2

26
 Example
−2𝑠+4
• Y(s) = y(t) = ?
𝑠2 +1 𝑠−1 2

−2𝑠+4 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
• = + +
𝑠2 +1 𝑠−1 2 𝑠2 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠−1 2

• −2𝑠 + 4 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 − 1 2 +
𝐶 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 2 + 1 + 𝐷(𝑠 2 + 1)

𝐴=2
𝐵=1 2𝑠+1 2 1
• ൢ→ 2 − +
𝐶 = −2 𝑠 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠−1 2
𝐷=1
27
 Example Cont’d
2𝑠+1 2 1
• 𝑌 𝑠 = − +
𝑠 2 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠−1 2
𝑠 1 2 1
• 𝑌 𝑠 = 2 2 + 2 − +
𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1 𝑠−1 𝑠−1 2

𝑠 𝑠
→ → cos(𝜔𝑡), where 𝜔 = 1
𝑠 2 +1 𝑠 2 +𝜔2
1 𝜔
→ → sin(𝜔𝑡), where 𝜔 = 1
𝑠 2 +1 𝑠 2 +𝜔2
1 1 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠−1
→ 𝑠+𝑎
→ 𝑒 , where 𝑎 = −1
1 𝑛! 𝑛 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠−1 2 → 𝑠+𝑎 𝑛+1 → 𝑡 𝑒 , where n=1 & 𝑎 = −1

• 𝑦 𝑡 = 2cos(𝑡) + sin(𝑡) − 2𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑡

28
 Final Value Theorem
• In control systems, it is usually desired to
determine the steady state value or final value
of the response 𝑦 𝑡

Example: What is the final position of the mass

(yss) after an initial displacement of y(0) = y0 ?

𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘

29
 Final Value Theorem
• The final value theorem states that:

yss = lim 𝑦(𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑌(𝑠)

𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

• Final value theorem applies if and only if lim 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑡→∞
exists (i. e. 𝑦(𝑡) settles down to a definite value for
𝑡 → ∞). This is only possible if all the poles of ‘sY(s)’
are on the left half s-plane.
30
 Final Value Theorem
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
Let’s assume
y0 = 1 m, m = 1 kg, b = 3 Nm/s, k = 2 N/m

𝑠+3 𝑠+3
𝑌 𝑠 = 2 =
(𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝑠+3
yss = lim 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) = lim 𝑠 =0
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 (𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)

Verify:
𝑠+3 2 1
𝑌 𝑠 = = −
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2

𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
yss = 𝑦 𝑡 → ∞ = lim 𝑦(𝑡) = 0 31
𝑡→∞
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
Example: Mass-spring-damper system

𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
Generalized Form:
𝑠 + 𝑏/𝑚 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑘
𝑠 2 + (𝑏/𝑚)𝑠 + ( )
𝑚

𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑦0
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 Characteristic Equation

𝜁 = b/(2 𝑘𝑚 ) is the damping factor (ratio) [unitless]

𝜔𝑛 = 𝑘/𝑚 is the natural frequency [rad/s]
32
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
Example: Mass-spring-damper system
Characteristic Equation:
q(s) = 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Roots (i.e. poles):
𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1
Time Response
Possible Cases:

1) 𝜁 > 1 OVERDAMPED X X
Roots are real and distinct
X
2) 0 < 𝜁 < 1 UNDERDAMPED
Roots are complex X
Fastest non-oscillatory
response
3) 𝜁 = 1 CRITICALLY DAMPED XX
Roots are real and equal
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
1) 𝜻 > 1 OVERDAMPED
Example:
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
1) 𝜻 > 1 OVERDAMPED
Example:
𝑠+3 Poles:
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
(𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2) 𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 = 0
𝑠1,2 = −1, −2
q(s) = 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Zeros:
𝜔𝑛 = 2 𝑠+3= 0
2𝜁𝜔𝑛 = 3 𝑠 = −3

𝜁= 3/(2 2) = 1.06 > 1, Overdamped

𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡

Poles are real

and distinct
O X X
-3 -2 -1
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
2) 0 < 𝜻 < 1 UNDERDAMPED
Example:
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
2) 0 < 𝜻 < 1 UNDERDAMPED

Characteristic Equation:
q(s) = 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1
𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝑗2(1 − 𝜁 2 )

𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2

𝜔𝑑
Damped Natural
Frequency

𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑 Roots (i.e. poles) are complex

How do the poles move on the complex plane as
the damping ratio is increased from 0 to 1 ? (0 < 𝜁 < 1)
𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2

𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2

𝜔𝑑 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜃
−𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑑

−𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2

38
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
2) 0 < 𝜻 < 1 UNDERDAMPED
Example:
𝑠+6 Poles:
𝑌 𝑠 = 2
(𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 25) 𝑠2 + 6𝑠 + 25 = 0
𝑠1,2 = −3 ±4𝑗
q(s) = 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Zeros:
𝜔𝑛 = 25 = 5 Hz 𝑠+6= 0
2𝜁𝜔𝑛 = 6 𝑠 = −6
𝜁= 6/(2∗ 5) = 0.6 < 1, Underdamped

X +4j Oscillatory Response

with a damped natural frequency of
O
-3 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 = 4 Hz
-6
X -4j
Poles are
complex conjugate
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
2) 0 < 𝜻 < 1 UNDERDAMPED
Example:
𝑠+6
𝑌 𝑠 = 2 𝑦 𝑡 =?
(𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 25)
Poles:
𝑠1,2 = −3 ±4𝑗

X +4j

O
-6 -3

X -4j

The response is oscillatory

 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
2) 0 < 𝜻 < 1 UNDERDAMPED
Example:
𝑠+6
𝑌 𝑠 = 2 𝑦 𝑡 =?
(𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 25)
𝑠+6 𝑠+6
𝑌 𝑠 = =
(𝑠2+6𝑠+25) 𝑠+3 2+42
𝑠+6 𝑠+3 3
𝑌 𝑠 = = +
𝑠+3 2+42 𝑠+3 2+42 𝑠+3 2+42

𝑠+6 𝑠+3 4 3
𝑌 𝑠 = 2 = +
𝑠+3 +42 𝑠+3 +42 4 𝑠+3 2+42
2

4
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 [cos 4𝑡 + sin(4𝑡)]
3
1
𝑠1,2 = −3 ±4𝑗
𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
4
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 [cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡)]
3
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
3) 𝜻 = 1 CRITICALLY DAMPED

Question: How to choose

damping for a door closer?
(i.e. what type of response
would you desire for a door
closer?)
y(t)
k f(t)
b

𝜁 = b/(2 𝑘𝑚)
𝜁 = 1 (critically damped)
b=2 𝑘𝑚
 General Analysis of
Second Order Systems
3) 𝜻 = 1 CRITICALLY DAMPED
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑦(𝑡)
ሷ + 𝑏𝑦(𝑡)
ሶ + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡)
𝑌(𝑠) 1
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 Characteristic Equation
1
𝑠1,2 = ( )(−𝑏/𝑚 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑚𝑘)
2
For critically damped response (fastest non-oscillatory response)
𝑏 2 − 4𝑚𝑘 = 0 𝑏 = 2 𝑚𝑘

Roots are real and equal

XX
−𝑏
𝑠1,2 =( )
2𝑚
 The Transfer Function of
Linear System
The transfer function of a linear system is
defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output variable to the Laplace transform of
the input variable, with all initial conditions are
assumed to be zero.

L output
𝑇 𝑠 =
L input

44
Mathematical Modeling of
Mechanical Systems

45
Basic Types of Mechanical Systems
• Translational
– Linear Motion

• Rotational
– Rotational Motion

46
Basic Elements of Translational
Mechanical Systems
Translational Spring
i)

Translational Mass
ii)

Translational Damper
iii)
 Translational Spring
Model:
Force = Stiffness Coefficient x Displacement

F 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑦

Translational Spring

48
Reaction force of spring to
displacement
𝑦

𝑘𝑦

𝑘𝑦

Equilibrium 49
 Translational Mass
Model:
Force = Mass x Acceleration
𝑦

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑦ሷ
50
 Springs in Parallel and Series

Displacement is the same, Displacement is different,

but force is distributed. but the force transmitted is the same.

𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑥 𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝑦 = 𝑘2 (𝑥 − 𝑦)

51
 Translational Damper
Model:
Force = Damping Coefficient x Velocity

𝐹
𝐹 = 𝑏𝑦ሶ

52
 Common Uses of Dashpots
Door Stoppers
Vehicle Suspension

Bridge Suspension
Reaction force of damper to motion

𝑏𝑦ሶ

𝑏𝑦ሶ

Equilibrium 54
 Dampers in Parallel and Series

𝐹 𝐹

𝐹 = 𝑏1 (𝑦ሶ − 𝑥)
ሶ + 𝑏2 (𝑦ሶ − 𝑥)
ሶ 𝐹 = 𝑏1 (𝑧ሶ − 𝑥)
ሶ = 𝑏2 (𝑦ሶ − 𝑧)ሶ

55
 Equation of Motion, Example
(OUTPUT)
(+)

M k1

k2

f(t)
(INPUT)

Obtain the transfer function U(s)/F(s)

if k1 = k2 = 1 N/m, M = m = 1 kg b = 1 Ns/m
56
 Equation of Motion, Example
(OUTPUT)
(+)

M k1

k2

f(t)
(INPUT)

57
 Equation of Motion, Example
(OUTPUT)
(+)

EoM for “m” M k1

(+) ෍ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑦ሷ k2

f(t)
(INPUT)

𝑘1𝑦(𝑡)
𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 a) Fix “M” (u = 0) and move “m” (y ≠ 0)
−𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 − 𝑘1𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑡

𝑘1𝑢(𝑡) b) Fix “m” (y = 0) and move “M” (u ≠ 0)

𝑏𝑢ሶ 𝑡 𝑏𝑢ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘1𝑢(𝑡) = 0

𝒃(𝒖ሶ 𝒕 − 𝒚ሶ 𝒕 ) + 𝒌𝟏(𝒖 𝒕 − 𝒚(𝒕)) = 𝒎𝒚(𝒕)

ሷ
+
𝒃𝒔 𝑼 𝒔 − 𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒌𝟏 𝑼 𝒔 − 𝒀 𝒔 = 𝒎𝒔𝟐𝒀 𝒔
(𝒃𝒔 + 𝒌𝟏)
𝒀 𝒔 =𝑼 𝒔
(𝒎𝒔𝟐 + 𝒃𝒔 + 𝒌𝟏)
(𝒔 + 𝟏)
𝒀 𝒔 =𝑼 𝒔 𝟐 …………..(Eq. 1) 58
(𝒔 + 𝒔 + 𝟏)
 Equation of Motion, Example (OUTPUT)
(+)

EoM for “M” M k1

k2
(+) f(t)
෍ 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑢ሷ (INPUT)

𝑘1𝑦(𝑡)
a) Fix “M” (u = 0) and move “m” (y ≠ 0)
𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡
+𝑏𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘1𝑦 𝑡 = 0
𝑘2𝑢(𝑡)
𝑘1𝑢(𝑡)
b) Fix “m” (y = 0) and move “M” (u ≠ 0)
𝑏𝑢ሶ 𝑡
f(t) −𝑏𝑢ሶ 𝑡 − 𝑘1𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑘2𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀𝑢ሷ 𝑡

𝒃(𝒚ሶ 𝒕 − 𝒖ሶ 𝒕 ) + 𝒌𝟏(𝒚 𝒕 − 𝒖(𝒕)) − 𝒌𝟐(𝒖 𝒕 ) + 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑴𝒖(𝒕)

ሷ
+
𝒃𝒔 𝒀 𝒔 − 𝑼 𝒔 + 𝒌𝟏 𝒀 𝒔 − 𝑼 𝒔 − 𝒌𝟐𝑼 𝒔 + 𝑭(𝒔) = 𝑴𝒔𝟐𝑼 𝒔 ...(Eq. 2)

In order to calculate U(s)/F(s), insert Eq. 1 into Eq. 2

𝑼(𝒔) (𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏)
=
𝑭(𝒔) (𝒔𝟒 + 𝟐𝒔𝟑 + 𝟑𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏)
59
 Equation of Motion, Example
Question:

Obtain the EoM for the mass m1 and m2.

60
Equation of Motion, Example

m1

m2

61
 Equation of Motion, Example
EoM for “m1” ෍ 𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑦ሷ 1

a) Fix “m1” (y1 = 0) and move “m2” (y2 ≠ 0)

m1
b) Fix “m2” (y2 = 0) and move “m1” (y1 ≠ 0)
(+) +
m2
EoM for “m2” ෍ 𝐹 = 𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2

a) Fix “m1” (y1 = 0) and move “m2” (y2 ≠ 0)

b) Fix “m2” (y2 = 0) and move “m1” (y1 ≠ 0)

+
62
 Equation of Motion, Example
Answer:

63
 Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational Spring

q2 q1

T = k (q1 − q 2 )

Moment of Inertia q

T = Jq
T

Rotational Damper
b
q2 q1
T

T = b(q1 − q2 )
 Equation of Motion, Example

Question: Can you develop a simplified model of the Canadian

Space Arm (approximate length of the arm is 15 m)
used in Space Shuttle?
65
 Equation of Motion, Example

Jlink

Qlink Link Shaft (15 m), Jshaft

A
mg

Tm(t)
Motor
Jlink

Qlink Link Shaft (15 m)

mg A

Qlink Qshaft T (t)

66 m
Motor
 Equation of Motion, Example
EoM for the motor shaft:
a) Fix the link (Qlink = 0) and rotate the motor shaft (Qshaft ≠ 0)

k Qshaft
Link Shaft (15 m)
A

Qlink Qshaft T (t)

m
Tm (t) Motor CCW(+) Motor

b) Fix the motor shaft (Qshaft = 0) and rotate the link (Qlink ≠ 0)

k Qlink Motor
+
෍ 𝑇 = 𝐽𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝜃ሷ 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

𝑇𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑘(𝜃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 − 𝜃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡) = 𝐽𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝜃ሷ 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 67

 Equation of Motion, Example
EoM for the link:
a) Fix the link (Qlink = 0) and rotate the motor shaft (Qshaft ≠ 0)

Link Shaft (15 m)

A
Link
A Qlink Qshaft T (t)
m
Motor
k Qshaft CCW(+)
b) Fix the motor shaft (Qshaft = 0) and rotate the link (Qlink ≠ 0)

Jlink
k Qlink
Qlink
mg A
mg Cos(Qlink)L +
෍ 𝑇 = 𝐽𝐴 𝜃ሷ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘

𝑘 𝜃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 − 𝜃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 + 𝑚𝑔𝐿 = (𝐽𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 + 𝑚𝐿2)𝜃ሷ𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 68

 Mathematical
Modeling of
Electrical Systems

69
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
resistor is given by Ohm’s law

v R (t ) = iR (t )R
• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

VR ( s ) = I R ( s ) R
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
capacitor is given as:

1
vc (t ) =  ic (t )dt
C
• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

1
Vc ( s ) = Ic (s)
Cs
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
inductor is given as:
diL (t )
v L (t ) = L
dt
• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

VL ( s ) = LsI L ( s )
 V-I and I-V relations
Component Symbol V-I Relation I-V Relation

v R (t )
Resistor v R (t ) = iR (t )R iR (t ) =
R

1 dvc (t )
Capacitor vc (t ) =  ic (t )dt ic (t ) = C
C dt

diL (t ) 1
Inductor v L (t ) = L iL (t ) =  v L (t )dt
dt L

73
 Example 1: RC Circuit
The two-port network shown in the following figure has vi(t) as the
input voltage and vo(t) as the output voltage. Find the transfer
function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the network.

vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)

1
v i ( t ) = i( t ) R +  i( t )dt
C
1
vo ( t ) =  i( t )dt
C
74
 Example 1: RC Circuit
1 1
v i ( t ) = i( t ) R +  i( t )dt vo ( t ) =  i( t )dt
C C
• Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering the
initial conditions to be zero.

1 1
Vi ( s ) = I ( s ) R + I (s) Vo ( s ) = I (s)
Cs Cs

• Re-arrange both equations as:

1
Vi ( s ) = I ( s )( R + ) CsVo ( s ) = I ( s )
Cs

75
 Example 1: RC Circuit
1
Vi ( s ) = I ( s )( R + ) CsVo ( s ) = I ( s )
Cs
• Substitute I(s) in equation on left
1
Vi ( s ) = CsVo ( s )( R + )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) Cs ( R + 1 )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) RCs + 1 First Order System
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 1
T(s) = =
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝜏𝑠+1 𝜏 is time constant
76
 Example 1: RC Circuit

• Let’s assume that 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 is a constant step

input with an amplitude of 𝐾 𝑣𝑖

• 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐾 → 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐾/𝑠 K

𝑉𝑜 𝑠 1 time
𝑇 𝑠 = = → First order system
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑇 𝑠
𝐾 1
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1

77
 Example 1: RC Circuit

𝐾 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑠(𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1

𝐾 = 𝐴𝜏𝑠 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠
𝐴 = 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = −𝐾𝜏
𝐾 𝐾𝜏 𝐾 𝐾
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = − = −
𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑠 𝑠 + 1/𝜏
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

78
 Example 1: RC Circuit
• 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑡
−
• 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐾(1 − 𝑒 ) 𝜏

• 𝑡 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 → 𝐾

Let’s take K = 1 and compare

the response of the following
systems:
System 1: 𝜏 = 0.1
System 2: 𝜏 = 0.01

79
 Example 1: RC Circuit
• 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑡
−
• 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐾(1 − 𝑒 ) 𝜏

• 𝑡 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 → 𝐾
• 𝑡 = 𝜏 ⇒ 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 0.632𝐾

0.632
Let’s take K = 1 and compare
the response of the following
systems:
System 1:𝜏 = 0.1
System 2: 𝜏 = 0.01 𝜏 = 0.01
𝜏 = 0.1

80
 Example 1: RC Circuit
• 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑡 𝐾 −𝑡/𝜏
• = 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑡 𝐾
• 𝑡=0 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
• initial slope can be obtained
from the time response
at time 𝑡 = 0

System 1: 𝜏 = 0.1
Using the graph:
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑡 1
= = 10
𝑑𝑡 0.1
 Example 1: RC Circuit
• First order system takes five time constants to
reach its final value.
𝑣𝑜 𝑡
𝜏 𝑣𝑜 𝑡

𝜏 2𝜏 3𝜏 4𝜏 5𝜏
 Example 2
𝑉𝑜 𝑠
• Find the transfer function T(s) = for the
𝑉𝑖 𝑠
following two port network.

vi(t) i(t) C vo(t)

83
 Transform Impedance (Resistor)
iR(t) IR(s)
+ +
Transformation
vR(t) ZR = R VR(s)

- -
Transform Impedance (Inductance)
iL(t) IL(s)
+ +

vL(t) ZL=Ls VL(s)

-
-

Transform Impedance (Capacitance)

ic(t) Ic(s)
+ +

vc(t) ZC=1/Cs
Vc(s)

- -
84
 Example 2

L
Z

Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

1 1 1
= +
Z ZR ZL

1 1 1
= +
Z R Ls

RLs
Z=
1 + RLs
85
 Example 2
RLs
Z=
1 + RLs
L
Z

Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

1 1
Vi ( s ) = I ( s )Z + I (s) Vo ( s ) = I (s)
Cs Cs

𝑉𝑜 𝑠
T(s) = =?
𝑉𝑖 𝑠
86
Block Diagrams

87
Block Diagram

88
Elements of a Block Diagram

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠)

89
Block Diagram

90
 Block Diagram of a Unity Feedback
Closed-Loop System
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐵(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶 𝑠
𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 ≠
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠
𝑅 𝑠

• 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐸 𝑠
• 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐶(𝑠)
• 𝐶 𝑠 =𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 −𝐶 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
• 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠
1+𝐺 𝑠
𝑪 𝒔 𝑮 𝒔
•𝑻 𝒔 = =
𝑹 𝒔 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)
91
 Block Diagram of a Non-Unity
Feedback Closed-Loop System

• 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐸 𝑠
• 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐵(𝑠)
• 𝐵 𝑠 = 𝐻(𝑠)𝐶(𝑠)
• 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐻(𝑠)𝐶(𝑠)
• 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐻(𝑠)𝐶 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
• 𝐶 𝑠 = 1+𝐺 𝑅 𝑠
𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
• 𝑇 𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝑠 1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

92
More Complicated Block Diagrams?

Convert it to a Signal Flow Diagram

93
 Signal Flow
Diagrams
Branch

Loop
Node Node Node

Path (traveling from input to output) = 1*G(s)

94
 Signal Flow Diagrams

𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠

95
 Signal Flow Diagrams

𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑅1 𝑠 𝐺1 (𝑠) − 𝑅2 𝑠 𝐺2 (𝑠) + 𝑅3 𝑠 𝐺3 (𝑠)

𝐶2 (𝑠) = 𝑉 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠) = 𝑅1 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠) − 𝑅2 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠) + 𝑅3 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠)

96
Signal Flow Diagrams

𝑌1 𝑠 = 𝐺11 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝐺12 𝑠 𝑅2 (𝑠)

𝑌2 𝑠 = 𝐺21 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝐺22 𝑠 𝑅2 (𝑠)

97
 Forward-path gain:
• Forward-path gain: The product of gains found by traversing a
path from the input node to the output node of the signal-
flow graph in the direction of signal flow.

𝑃1 = 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 𝑠 𝐺7 𝑠
𝑃2 = 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 𝑠 𝐺7 𝑠

98
 Loop gain:
• Loop gain: The product of branch gains found by traversing a
path that starts at a node and ends at the same node,
following the direction of the signal flow, without passing
through any other node more than once.

• L1 = 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠
• L2 = 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠
• L3 = 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠
• L4 = 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠

99
 Nontouching loops:
• Nontouching loops: Loops that do not have any nodes in
common.
• For instance, loop L1= 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 does not touch loops
L2= 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 , L3= 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠 , and
L4= 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠

100
 Nontouching-loop gain:
• Nontouching-loop gain: The product of loop gains from
nontouching loops taken two, three, four, or more at a time.
• For instance, nontouching-loop gains taken two at a time (i.e.
two non-touching loops):

• L1L2= (𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 )(𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 )

• L1L3= (𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 )(𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠 )
• L1L4= (𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 )(𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠 )

101
 Nontouching-loop gain:
• Note that there are no nontouching-loop gains taken three at
a time (i.e. three nontouching loops) in this example, but it
could be in other examples.

102
 Mason’s Rule
𝐶 𝑠
• The transfer function, , of a system represented by a signal-flow graph
𝑅 𝑠
is
𝐶 𝑠 𝑃𝑘 𝑠 Δ 𝑘 𝑠
• 𝑇 𝑠 = = σ𝑘
𝑅 𝑠 Δ(𝑠)

• 𝑃𝑘 𝑠 : 𝑘 th forward path gain from 𝑅(𝑠) to 𝐶(𝑠)

• Δ(𝑠): the determinant of the graph

• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − σ(loop gains)+σ(gain products of two non-touching
loops) −σ(gain products of three non-touching loops)+σ(gain
products of four non-touching loops)− ⋯

• Δ𝑘 (𝑠): cofactor of the path 𝑃𝑘

• is the determinant with the loops touching the 𝑘 th forward path
removed (set gains of the loops touching to 𝑘 th forward path
equal to zero in Δ(𝑠)) 103
• Forward path gains from 𝑅(𝑠) to 𝐶(𝑠):
• 𝑃1 𝑠 = 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 𝑠 𝐺7 𝑠
• 𝑃2 𝑠 = 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 𝑠 𝐺7 𝑠
• Loops:
• 𝐿1 (𝑠) = 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 • Δ𝑘 (𝑠): cofactor of the path 𝑃𝑘
• 𝐿2 𝑠 = 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 • set gains of the loops touching to
• 𝐿3 𝑠 = 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠 𝑘 th forward path equal to zero in
• 𝐿4 𝑠 = 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠 Δ 𝑠
• Nontouching loop gains: • All loops are touching to both paths,
so set all loop gains to zero in Δ 𝑠
• 𝐿1 𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠 = [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 ][𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 ]
• 𝐿1 𝑠 𝐿3 𝑠 = [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 ][𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺5 (𝑠)𝐻3 𝑠 ]
• Δ1 𝑠 = 1 and Δ2 𝑠 = 1
• 𝐿1 𝑠 𝐿4 𝑠 = [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 ][𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺6 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠 ] 𝐶 𝑠 𝑃 Δ 𝑃 Δ
• 𝑇 𝑠 = = 1 1+ 2 2=
• Δ 𝑠 : Determinant of the graph: 𝑅 𝑠 Δ Δ
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − σ(loop gains) 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐺7 𝑠 𝐺5 𝑠 +𝐺6 𝑠
+σ(gain products of two non-touching loops)
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4 1− 𝐿1 +𝐿2 +𝐿3 +𝐿4 +(𝐿1 𝐿2 +𝐿1 𝐿3 +𝐿1 𝐿4 )
+(𝐿1 𝐿2 + 𝐿1 𝐿3 + 𝐿1 𝐿4 )

104
 Example
𝑌 𝑠
• Using Mason’s rule, find 𝑇 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠

105
 Example

• Forward path gains from 𝑅(𝑠) to 𝑌(𝑠):

• 𝑃1 𝑠 = 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠
• 𝑃2 𝑠 = 𝐺5 𝑠 𝐺6 𝑠 𝐺7 𝑠 𝐺8 𝑠
• Loops:
• 𝐿1 (𝑠) = 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 • Δ𝑘 (𝑠): cofactor of the path 𝑃𝑘
• 𝐿2 𝑠 = 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠 • set gains of the loops touching
• 𝐿3 𝑠 = 𝐺6 𝑠 𝐻6 𝑠 to 𝑘 th forward path equal to
• 𝐿4 𝑠 = 𝐺7 𝑠 𝐻7 𝑠 zero in Δ 𝑠
• Two nontouching loop gains: • Δ1 𝑠 = 1 − 𝐿3 + 𝐿4
• 𝐿1 (𝑠) 𝐿3 (𝑠)
• Δ2 𝑠 = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
• 𝐿1 (𝑠) 𝐿4 (𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 𝑃1 Δ1 +𝑃2 Δ2
• 𝐿2 (𝑠) 𝐿3 (𝑠) • 𝑇 𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝑠 Δ
• 𝐿2 (𝑠) 𝐿4 (𝑠)
• Δ 𝑠 : Determinant of the graph:
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − σ(loop gains) + σ(gain products
of two non-touching loops)
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4 + (𝐿1 𝐿3 +
𝐿1 𝐿4 + 𝐿2 𝐿3 + 𝐿2 𝐿4 )
106
How to Convert a Block Diagram to a
Signal Flow Diagram ?
𝐶 𝑠
𝑇 𝑠 = =?
𝑅 𝑠

Replace summation blocks and branch points with a node

107
 How to Convert a Block Diagram to a
Signal Flow Diagram ?

Loop

• Forward path gains from 𝑅(𝑠) to 𝐶(𝑠):

Δ1 𝑠 = 1
• 𝑃1 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠
𝑌 𝑠 𝑃1 Δ1
• Loops: 𝑇 𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝑠 Δ
• 𝐿1 𝑠 = −𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) 𝐺 𝑠
• Nontouching loop gains: none 𝑇 𝑠 =
1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
• Δ 𝑠 : Determinant of the graph:
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − σ(loop gains)
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − 𝐿1
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) 108
 How to Convert a Block Diagram to a
Signal Flow Diagram ?

Replace summation blocks and branch points with a node

-H2(s)

1 G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s) 1

R(s) Y(s)
1
H1(s)

-H3(s) 109
 -H2(s)

1 G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s) 1

R(s) Y(s)
1
H1(s)
-H3(s)

• Forward path gains from 𝑅(𝑠) to 𝑌(𝑠): • Δ𝑘 (𝑠): cofactor of the path 𝑃𝑘
• 𝑃1 𝑠 = 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 • set gains of the loops touching to
𝑘 th forward path equal to zero in
• Loops: Δ 𝑠
• 𝐿1 (𝑠) = −𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 • All loops are touching to the path, so
set all loop gains to zero in Δ 𝑠
• 𝐿2 𝑠 = 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 • Δ1 𝑠 = 1
• 𝐿3 𝑠 = −𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺4 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑃1 Δ1
• Nontouching loop gains: none • 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠
= Δ
• Δ 𝑠 : Determinant of the graph: • 𝑇 𝑠 = 1 2 3 4
𝐺 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
1− 𝐿1 +𝐿2 +𝐿3
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − σ(loop gains)
• Δ 𝑠 = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3

110