ABSTRACT

The current tendencies in automotive industry need intensive

investigation in problems of interaction of active safety systems with brake
system equipments. At the same time, the opportunities to decrease the power
take-off of single components, disc brake systems. Disc brakes sometimes
spelled as "disk" brakes, use a flat, disc-shaped metal rotor that spins with the
wheel. When the brakes are applied, a calliper squeezes the brake pads
against the disc (just as you would stop a spinning disc by squeezing it
between your fingers), slowing the wheel.
The disc brake used in the automobile is divided into two parts: a
rotating axis symmetrical disc, and the stationary pads. The hydraulic disc
brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid,
typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling
unit, which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake
mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of the vehicle.
The frictional heat, which is generated on the interface of the disc and
pads, can cause high temperature during the braking process. Hence the
automobiles generally use disc brakes on the front wheels and drum brakes on
the rear wheels. The disc brakes have good stopping performance and are
usually safer and more efficient than drum brakes.
The four wheel disc brakes are more popular, swapping drums on all but the
most basic vehicles. Many two wheel automobiles design uses a drum brake
for the rear wheel. Brake technology began in the '60s as a serious attempt to
provide adequate braking for performance cars has ended in an industry
where brakes range from supremely adequate to downright phenomenal.

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 INTRODUCTION

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Most

commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though
other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example
regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which
may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into
potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil.
Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric
current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other
braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for
example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take
other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water
or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as
drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with
both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity ( ), an

object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same
mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance,
when braking at the traction limit, is 100
times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and
energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts
and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp.
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 CHARACTERISTICS

Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be
obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in
which case the brake can cause a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail
when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy
per unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the
continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on
e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade.
Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively
immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect
on fade.

Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts

varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have
little traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead
to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump"
feeling for riders inside.

Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human

application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other
brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to
continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be
"powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower
(worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake

power output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the
fluid displacement of the brake and other factors.

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 WORKING OF A BRAKE

We all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a
stop. But we do not how does this happen, how does our car transmit the
force from our leg to its wheels and how does it multiply the force so that it is
enough to stop something as big as a car.

Fig 1: Braking – fundamentals

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 Friction and how it applies to automobiles

A brake system is designed to slow and halt the motion of vehicle. To do this,
various components within the brake system must convert vehicle’s moving
energy into heat. This is done by using friction.

Friction is the resistance to movement exerted by two objects on each other.

Two forms of friction play a part in controlling a vehicle: Kinetic or moving,
and static or stationary. The amount of friction or resistance to movement
depends upon the type of material in contact, the smoothness of their
rubbing surfaces and the pressure holding them together. Thus, in a
nutshell a car brake works by applying a static surface to a moving surface

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vehicle, thus causing friction and converting kinetic energy into heat energy. The
high- level mechanics are as follows.

As the brakes on a moving automobile are put into motion, rough-textures

brake pads or brake shoes are pressed against the rotating parts of vehicle, be
it disc or drum. The kinetic energy or momentum of the vehicle is then
converted into heat energy by kinetic friction of the rubbing surfaces and the
car or truck slows down.

When vehicle comes to stop, it is held in place by static friction. The friction
between surfaces of brakes as well as the friction between tires and roads
resists any movement. To overcome the static friction that holds the car
motionless, brakes are released. The heat energy of combustion of in engine is
converted into kinetic energy by transmission and drive train, and the vehicle
moves.

Fig 2: Typical Braking System

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 Hydraulic Brake
A hydraulic brake system is a type of braking mechanism that uses
hydraulic fluid to transfer force from the brake lever to the brake calipers. It’s
commonly found in bicycles, motorcycles, and cars. Here's how it works:

1. Brake Lever: When you pull the brake lever, it pushes hydraulic fluid
through a system of hoses.
2. Brake Line: The fluid travels through a sealed brake line (usually made of
metal or reinforced plastic).
3. Brake Caliper: The fluid reaches the brake caliper, which contains pistons.
The fluid pressure pushes the pistons outward, causing the brake pads to
press against the rotor (the spinning disc).
4. Friction: The friction between the brake pads and the rotor slows down the
wheel, bringing the vehicle or bike to a stop.

Hydraulic brakes are known for providing smooth, consistent braking with less
effort, and they are more effective in wet conditions compared to mechanical brake
systems because hydraulic systems are sealed and less affected by moisture.

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Disk Brake
A disc brake is a type of brake commonly used in vehicles and bicycles,
and it uses friction to slow down or stop the movement of a wheel. It consists of
several key components:

1. Brake Rotor (Disc): This is a flat, circular disc that is attached to the wheel
hub. As the wheel turns, the rotor rotates along with it.
2. Brake Pads: Two brake pads are mounted inside a caliper and are
positioned on either side of the rotor. When the brakes are applied, these
pads squeeze against the rotor to create friction, which slows the wheel
down.
3. Caliper: This is the component that houses the brake pads. It’s mounted
around the rotor and contains a mechanism (either hydraulic or mechanical)
to apply pressure to the pads. In hydraulic disc brakes, fluid pressure
activates the caliper; in mechanical disc brakes, a cable does.
4. Brake Fluid or Cable: In hydraulic disc brakes, brake fluid is pushed
through a line when you pull the brake lever, activating the calipers. In
mechanical systems, pulling the lever moves a cable that forces the pads to
contact the rotor.

Advantages of disc brakes:

 Better Performance: They offer more stopping power than rim brakes,
especially under wet or muddy conditions.
 Less Heat Build-up: Because the rotor is exposed and dissipates heat more
effectively than rim brakes, they perform better in high-speed or extended
braking situations.
 Consistency: They work well in both dry and wet conditions, and the
braking force is more consistent.

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 DRUM BRAKE

drum brake is a type of braking system commonly used in older vehicles or on

certain parts of modern cars, like rear brakes. It consists of a drum that rotates with
the wheel and brake shoes inside it. When the driver applies the brake, the shoes
are pushed against the inside of the drum, creating friction that slows the wheel
down.

The key components of a drum brake include:

1. Drum: The circular metal housing that rotates with the wheel.
2. Brake Shoes: Curved components that press against the inside of the drum.
3. Wheel Cylinder: A hydraulic component that pushes the brake shoes
outward when the brakes are applied.
4. Adjuster: Keeps the brake shoes properly positioned and compensates for
wear.

Drum brakes are generally less efficient than disc brakes, particularly in heat
dissipation, which is why many modern vehicles have switched to disc brakes for
better performance. However, drum brakes are still used because they are cost-
effective and can be more effective in certain applications, especially on vehicles
that don't need the highest performance braking systems.

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 Pneumatic Brake
A pneumatic brake, also known as an air brake, is a type of
braking system that uses compressed air to apply pressure to the brake
components. These systems are commonly found in large vehicles such as trucks,
buses, trains, and heavy machinery, where hydraulic or mechanical brakes might
not be effective due to the size or weight of the vehicle.

Here’s how a pneumatic brake works:

1. Compressor: The system includes an air compressor that continuously

supplies compressed air.
2. Reservoir: Compressed air is stored in a reservoir or tank. This air is used
when the brake is applied.
3. Brake Valves: The driver operates a brake valve, which controls the flow of
compressed air to the brake chambers.
4. Brake Chambers: These chambers contain a diaphragm that moves when
air is applied. This movement pushes the brake pads or shoes against the
braking surface (drum or disc).
5. Release Mechanism: When the brake is released, the air pressure is vented,
and the brake components return to their initial position, allowing the
vehicle to move again.

Pneumatic brakes are reliable and can provide consistent braking performance,
especially for large vehicles that require powerful braking systems. They also have
an advantage in terms of fail-safety: if air pressure drops, the system is designed to
apply the brakes automatically (often referred to as "spring-loaded brakes" in some
vehicles). This ensures the vehicle remains stationary in case of air system failure.

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 Emergency Brake
Emergency brake, also known as a parking brake or handbrake, is a
secondary braking system in vehicles that is primarily used to keep the vehicle
stationary when parked or in emergency situations when the main braking system
fails.

There are a few different types of emergency brakes:

1. Mechanical (Handbrake): This is the most common type, often found in

manual transmission vehicles. It typically involves a lever that you pull up to
engage the brake. The system works by pulling cables that apply force to the
rear brake shoes or pads, securing the vehicle in place. This is commonly
referred to as the "handbrake" or "park brake."
2. Electronic Parking Brake (EPB): Many modern vehicles are equipped
with an electronic version of the parking brake, which is activated by
pressing a button or switch. It uses an electric motor to engage the brake
mechanism, which can apply pressure to the calipers or brake shoes
automatically. This system often includes a feature that will release the
brake when the car is put into gear or "drive."
3. Foot-operated Parking Brake: Found in some older cars, this system uses
a foot pedal instead of a hand lever. Pressing the pedal applies the brake, and
a release mechanism can be operated by the foot as well.

The emergency brake is crucial for preventing the vehicle from rolling when
parked, especially on an incline. In the event of a failure of the regular braking
system, the emergency brake can sometimes help slow or stop the vehicle, though
it's not designed for prolonged use under normal driving conditions. It’s typically
meant to provide a backup in emergencies.

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 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the braking system is a crucial safety
feature in all vehicles, responsible for slowing down or stopping the vehicle
when necessary. Modern braking systems, such as disc and drum brakes,
use hydraulic force to apply pressure to brake pads or shoes, creating
friction with the wheels. This friction converts kinetic energy into heat,
effectively reducing the vehicle's speed. Additionally, advancements like
anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and electronic stability control (ESC) have
enhanced vehicle safety by preventing wheel lockup and maintaining
control during emergency braking situations. Proper maintenance of the
braking system is vital for ensuring its effectiveness and safety, with regular
inspections and timely replacements of worn components being key
factors.

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