Review of Classroom Assessment

Module 1: Review of Classroom Assessment

Learning Achievement
Outcome(s) Indicators:
The students shall be able The students…
to:
➢ Critique the test items
➢ Discuss the using high quality
principles of high- assessment.
quality
assessment; ➢ Identify the
➢ Critique teacher- assessment activities
made tests using as conventional or
the principles of authentic assessment.
high-quality
assessment; ➢ Conduct interview to
➢ Contrast the teachers about
conventional the nature & types of
assessment and assessments they
authentic use.
assessment; and
➢ Explain the nature
and characteristics
of authentic
assessment.

Institutional
Outcomes

[Skilled Communicator,
Inquiry-Focused and
Knowledgeable,
Collaborative and Effective
Leader]

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Prerequisites

The students will read about the case study entitled “Which Assessment
Should Keona Use?” The case study activates their prior knowledge regarding classroom
assessment.

Which Assessment Should Keona Use?

After nine snow days during her unit on cells, Keona, a sixth-grade life science
teacher, was frustrated. Her learning targets surrounded students acquiring knowledge of
cellular parts and a simple understanding of their functions, but the snow days limited her
teaching time. Keona had been lucky her students had completed their interactive notes on
cell parts, watched a Discovery video on cell parts’ functions, completed a matching-sort of
parts to definitions, looked at cells under a microscope, and made paper diagrams of both
types of cells. While Keona had plans for an interactive WebQuest and
making 3-D plant and animal cells out of shoe boxes and Jell-O, there simply was no time.
With the snow, there were only two days left in the unit and having students use
technology to make cell diagrams was important. It would allow Keona to assess her
students’ learning. So tomorrow students would have a choice: Students would pick whether
to use the iPad drawing app or the computer program Pixi to make a cell diagram. No
matter which option was chosen, students had to label, define, and provide a sentence
about each part’s cellular function. Since the project would take two days, the downfall to
having such little time left in the unit was that students would be able to complete only a
diagram of an animal cell.
Since every non-snow day, Keona had focused on teaching and she now had no
assessments to demonstrate students’ learning about cells. She had formatively assessed
her students’ learning through her questions and their work in class, but Keona lacked
graded quizzes or projects. She knew the value of grades since they provided a way of
communicating with students and their parents about a student’s progress in mastering
concepts, so she wanted to be sure to have at least two grades: One regarding students’
learning on plant cells and the other on animal cells. The animal cells grade could come
from the diagram students were completing, but she didn’t know what to do about
assessing students’ learning on plant cells.
Keona decided she could (a) give a quiz that had students demonstrate their learning
about plant cells by matching definitions, labeling cell parts, and completing multiple-choice
items regarding functions, or (b) give an at-home project with a grading rubric that required
students to build a model of a plant cell with parts labeled, defined, and functions explained.
She was torn since both assessments aligned with her format of in-class learning activities
and state standards of students knowing cellular parts and their functions.

Task: As you read this Module, think about which assessment Keona should use. What
should be Keona’s overall concern when deciding between the assessments? Should she
give the quiz or project? What should Keona’s specific criteria be for making her decision,
and using the criteria, in what ways is each assessment strong and weak?

[Source: Mcmillan, J. (2018). Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice that Enhance Student
Learning and Motivation. 7th Ed. USA (pp. 71- 72).USA: Pearson Education, Inc.]

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Concept Formation

This section presents the concept of assessments, principle of high-quality assessments and
authentic assessment.

Classroom assessment is the process of collecting, synthesizing and interpreting

information to aid in classroom decision making.

Purposes of Assessment

There are three interrelated purposes of assessment. Knowledge of these purposes

and how they fit in the learning process can result to a more effective classroom
assessment.

1. Assessment for learning (AfL)

Assessment for learning pertains to diagnostic and formative assessment tasks which
are used to determine learning needs, monitor academic progress of students during a unit
or block of instruction and guide instruction. Students are given-on going an immediate
descriptive feedback concerning their performance. Based on assessment results, teachers
can make adjustments when necessary in their teaching methods and strategies to support
learning. They can decide whether there is a need to differentiate instruction or design more
appropriate learning activities to clarify and consolidate students’ knowledge, understanding
and skills. Examples of AfL are pre-tests, written assignments, quizzes, concept maps,
focused questions, among others.

2. Assessment as Learning (AaL)

Assessment as Learning employs tasks or activities that provide students with an

opportunity to monitor and further their own learning – to think about their personal
learning habits and how they can adjust their learning strategies to achieve their goals. It
involves metacognitive process like reflection and self-regulation to allow students to utilize
their strengths and work on their weaknesses by directing and regulating their learning.
Hence, students are responsible and accountable for their learning. Self- and peer-
assessment rubrics and portfolios are examples of AaL. AaL is also formative which may be
given at any phase if the learning process (DepEd Order, s. 2015).

3. Assessment of Learning (AoL)

Assessment of Learning is summative and done at the end of a unit, task, process or
period. Its purpose is to provide evidence of a student’s level of achievement in relation to
curricular outcomes. Unit tests and final projects are typical examples of summative
assessment. AoL is used for grading, evaluation and reporting purposes. Evaluative feedback
on the student’s proficiency level is given to the student concerned, likewise to his/her
parents and other stakeholders. AoL provides the foundation for decisions on student’s
placement and promotion.

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PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Principle 1: Clarity and Appropriateness of Learning Targets

• Learning targets should be clearly stated, specific, and center on what is truly
important.

Learning Targets (Mc Millan, 2007; Stiggins, 2007)

Knowledge Student mastery of substantive subject matter
Reasoning Student ability to use knowledge to reason and solve problems
Skills Student ability to demonstrate achievement-related skills
Products Student ability to create achievement-related products
Affective/Disposition Student attainment of effective states such as attitudes, values,
interests and self-efficacy

Principle 2: Appropriateness of Methods

• Learning targets are measured by appropriate assessment methods.

Assessment Methods
Objective Objective Essay Performance Oral Observatio Self-Report
Supply Selection Based Questioning n
Short Multiple Restricte Presentations Oral Informal Attitude
Answer Choice d Papers Examination Formal Survey
Projects s Sociometric
Completio Matching Athletics Conferences Devices
n Test Type Response Demonstration interviews Questionnaire
Extended s s
True/Fals Exhibitions Inventories
e Response Portfolios

Learning Targets and their Appropriate Assessment Methods

Targets
Objective Essay Performance Oral Observation Self-
Based Questioning Report
Knowledge 5 4 3 4 3 2
Reasoning 2 5 4 4 2 2
Skills 1 3 5 2 5 3
Products 1 1 5 2 4 4
Affective 1 2 4 4 4 5
Note: Higher numbers indicate better matches (e.g. 5 – high, 1 = low)

Modes of Assessment

Mode Description Examples Advantages Disadvantages

Traditional The paper- • Standardiz • Scoring is • Preparation
and-pen test ed and objective of the

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used in teacher- • Administrati instrument

assessing made tests on is easy is time
knowledge because consuming
and thinking students • Prone to
skills can take guessing
the test at and
the same cheating
time
Performan A mode of • Practical • Preparation • Scoring
ce assessment Test of the tends to be
that requires • Oral and instrument subjective
actual Aural Test is relatively without
demonstrati • Projects, easy rubrics
on of skills or etc. • Measures • Administrati
creation of behavior on is time
products of that cannot consuming
learning be
deceived as
they are
demonstrat
ed and
observed
Portfolio A process of • Working • Measures • Developme
gathering Portfolios students nt is time
multiple • Show growth and consuming
indicators of Portfolios developme • Rating
student • Document nt tends to be
progress to ary • Intelligence subjective
support Portfolios -fair without
course goals rubrics
in dynamic,
on-going
and
collaborative
process.

Principle 3: Balance

• A balanced assessment sets targets in all domains of learning (cognitive, affective,

and psychomotor) or domains of intelligence (verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical,
bodily-kinesthetic, visual-spatial, musical-rhythmic, intrapersonal-social, intrapersonal-
introspection, physical world-natural, existential-spiritual).
• A balanced assessment makes use of both traditional and alternative assessments.

Principle 4: Validity

Validity – is the degree to which the assessment instrument measures what it intends to
measure. It is also refers to the usefulness of the instrument for a given purpose. It is the most
important criterion of a good assessment instrument.

Ways to Establishing Validity

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1. Face Validity – is done by examining the physical appearance of the instrument to make
it readable and understandable.

2. Content Validity – is done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of
assessment to reflect the curricular objectives.

3. Criterion-related Validity – is established statistically such that a set of scores revealed

by measuring instrument is correlated with the scores obtained in another external predictor
or measure. It has two purposes: Concurrent and predictive.

a. Concurrent validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating

the sets of scores obtained from two measures of given at a close interval

b. Predictive validity – describes the future performance of an individual by

correlating the sets of scores obtained from two measures given at a longer time interval.

4. Construct Validity – is established statistically by comparing psychological traits or factors

that theoretically influence scores in a test.

a. Convergent Validity – is established if the instrument defines another similar trait

other than what is intended to measure.

E.g. Critical Thinking Test may be correlated with Creative Thinking Test.

b. Divergent Validity – is established if an instrument can describe only the intended

trait and not the other traits.

E.g. Critical Thinking Test may not be correlated with Reading Comprehension Test

Principle 5: Reliability

Reliability – refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested
using the same or equivalent instrument.

Method Type of Reliability Procedure Statistical Measure

Measure
Test-Retest Measure of Stability
Give a test twice to the Pearson r
same learners with
any time interval
between tests from
several minutes to
several years.
Equivalent Forms Measure of Give parallel forms of Pearson r
Equivalence tests with close time
interval between
forms
Test-retest with Measure of Stability Give parallel forms of Pearson r
Equivalent Forms and Equivalence tests with increased
time interval between
forms
Split Half Measure of Internal Give a test once to Pearson r
Consistency obtain scores for Spearman Brown
equivalent halves of Formula

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the test e.g. odd-and-

even numbered items.
Kuder-Richardson Measure of Internal Give the test once Kuder-Richardson
Consistency then correlate the Formula 20 and 21
proportion/percentage
of the students
passing and not
passing a given item.

Principle 6: Fairness

A fair assessment provides all students with an equal opportunity to demonstrate

achievement. The key to fairness are as follows:

• Students have knowledge of learning targets and assessment.

• Students are given equal opportunity to learn.
• Students possess the pre-requisite knowledge and skills.
• Students are free from teacher stereotypes.
• Students are free from biased assessment tasks and procedures.

Principle 7: Practicality and Efficiency

When assessing learning, the information obtained should be worth the resources and time
required to obtain it. The factors to consider are as follows:

• Teacher Familiarity with the Method. The teacher should know the strengths and
weaknesses of the method and how to use it.
• Time required. Time includes construction and use of the instrument and the
interpretation of results. Other things being equal, it is desirable to use the shortest
assessment time possible that provides valid and reliable results.
• Complexity of the Administration. Directions and procedures for administrations are
clear and that little time and effort is needed.
• Ease of Scoring. Use of scoring procedures appropriate to a method and purpose. The
easier the procedure, the more reliable the assessment is.
• Ease of Interpretation. Interpretation is easier if there is a plan on how to use the results
prior to assessment.
• Cost. Other things being equal, the less expense used to gather information, the better.

Principle 8: Continuity

• Assessment takes place in all phases of instruction. It could be done before, during
and after instruction.

Activities Occurring Prior to Instruction

• Understanding students’ cultural backgrounds, interests, skills and abilities as they

apply across a range of learning domains and/or subject areas
• Understanding students’ motivations and their interests in specific class content

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• Clarifying and articulating the performance outcomes expected of pupils

• Planning instruction for individuals or groups of students

Activities Occurring During Instruction

• Monitoring pupil/student progress toward instructional goals

• Identifying gains and difficulties students are experiencing in learning and performing
• Adjusting instruction
• Giving contingent, specific, and credible praise and feedback
• Motivating students to learn
• Judging the extent of student attainment of instructional outcomes

Activities Occurring After the Appropriate Instructional Segment (e.g. lesson, class, semester,
grade)

• Describing the extent to which each student has attained both short-and long-term
instructional goals
• Communicating strengths and weaknesses based on assessment results to students,
and parents or guardians
• Recording and reporting assessment results for school-level analysis, evaluation, and
decision-making
• Analyzing assessment information gathered before and during instruction to
understand each students’ progress to date and to inform future instructional planning
• Evaluating the effectiveness of instruction
• Evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and materials in use

Principle 9: Authenticity

Features of Authentic Assessment (Burk, 1999)

• Meaningful performance task

• Clear standards and public criteria
• Quality products and performance
• Positive interaction between the assesse and assessor
• Emphasis on meta-cognition and self-evaluation
• Learning that transfers

Criteria of Authentic Achievement (Burke, 1999)

1. Disciplined Inquiry – requires in-depth understanding of the problem and a move beyond
knowledge produced by other to a formulation of new ideas.

2. Integration of Knowledge – considers things as a whole rather than fragments of

knowledge

3. Value Beyond Evaluation – what students do have some value beyond the classroom.

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Principle 10: Communication

• Assessment targets and standards should be communicated.

• Assessment results should be communicated to important users.
• Assessment results should be communicated to students through direct interaction or
regular on-going feedback on their progress.

Principle 11: Positive Consequences

• Assessment should have a positive consequence to students; that is, it should motivate
them to learn.
• Assessment should have a positive consequence to teachers; that is, it should help
them improve the effectiveness of their instruction

Principle 12: Ethics

• Teachers should free the students from harmful consequences of misuse or overuse
of various assessment procedures such as embarrassing students and violations
students’ right to confidentiality.
• Teachers should be guided by laws and policies that affect their classroom
assessment.
• Administrators and teachers should understand that it is inappropriate to use
standardized students achievement to measure teaching effectiveness.

What is Authentic Assessment (AA)?

“A form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that
demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills…” – Jon Mueller (2011)

“..Engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, in which students must use
knowledge to fashion performances effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas of
or analogous to the kind of problem faced by adult citizens and consumers or professionals in
the field.” – Grant Wiggins (1987)

“Performance (authentic) assessments call upon the examinee to demonstrate specific skills
and competencies; that is, to apply of their weaknesses. This result is diminished fear of tests
and improvement of self-esteem.

From teacher-centered activities, AA encourages a learner-centered class where the teacher’s

major role is to help students accept responsibility for their learning and become self-
evaluators. The teacher designs activities and evaluates results which provide information
needed for monitoring students’ progress and evaluating the teacher’s instructional strategies.

Characteristics of Authentic Assessment (AA)

1. AA starts with clear and definite criteria of performance made known to the students.

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2. AA is criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced and so it identifies strengths

and weaknesses, but does not compare students nor rank their levels of performance.
3. AA requires students to make their own answers to questions rather than select from
given options as in multiple choice items, and requires them to use a range of higher
order thinking skills (HOTS).
4. AA often emphasizes performance and therefore students are required to demonstrate
their knowledge, skills or competencies in appropriate situations. AA does not rely on
ability to recall facts or memorize details, instead students are asked to demonstrate
skills and concepts they have learned.
5. AA encourages both teacher and students to determine their rate of progress in
cooperatively attaining the desired student learning outcomes.
6. AA does not encourage route learning and passive taking of tests; instead, students
are required to demonstrate analytical skills, ability to integrate what they learn,
creatively, and ability to work in a group, skills in oral and written communications. In
brief, AA values not only the finished products which are learning outcomes, but also
the process of learning.
7. AA change the role of students as passive test takers into becoming active and involved
participants in assessment activities that emphasize what they are capable of doing
instead tests to measure students’ skills or retained facts has come under scrutiny
because of the limitation encountered in determining the students’ capability to utilize
their knowledge and skills in work and professional practice. At best, these tests are
able to give a “snapshot” of the students’ ability to recall facts and information at a
given time but fail to provide a “moving picture” of how they will perform in real-world
situations which exist in the workplace.

Note: While objective type of tests (e.g. multiple-choice or true-false tests) can be indicators
of academic achievement, teachers and students are often misled by the results of these tests
on the kind of academic work and activities that need to be mastered. It is to be remembered
that test items are not real problems; right answers are not necessarily indicators of critical
thinking.

Phases of Authentic Assessment

The purpose of assessment is to improve student learning. Assessment achieves this

purpose by gathering pieces of evidence of student performance over a period of time. Such
evidence may be in the form of written works, journal entries, oral presentations, research
paper results, essays, story writing, and examination results. ‘Closing the loop” encourages
the use of assessment results for further improvement.

In general, outcome assessment goes through five (5) phases:

1. Identifying the most important knowledge and skills that students should be able to
demonstrate as a result of their learning activities.
2. Determining the criteria and standards of outcomes performance and the acceptable
evidence that may be presented as proof of outcomes’ attainment.

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3. Implementation of the supporting activities that will facilitate the attainment of the
desired student learning outcomes.
4. Measuring the extent at which the students are attaining the desired learning
outcomes.
5. Interpreting the assessment results and evaluating whether they indicate attainment
of the desired outcomes and utilizing them for continuous improvement.

“Closing the Loop” is demonstrated in a diagram of these phases adopted from Jon Muellers
(20011) of North Central College, Nashville, Illinois. Both assessment and evaluation are based
on the judgement of an experienced, thoughtful human being – the classroom teacher.

Difference between Traditional and Authentic Assessment

Traditional Assessment is commonly Authentic Assessment is grounded on the
associated with pre-determined choice following principles and practices:
measures of assessment such as multiple
choice tasks, fill-in-the-blanks, true-false,
matching type and others. Students typically
recall or select the answers. Essentially, TA
springs from the educational philosophy
which involves the following principles and
practices:

1. A school’s mission is to develop 1. A school’s mission is to develop

useful citizens; useful citizens;
2. To be a useful citizen, one must 2. To be a useful citizen, one has to be
possess a certain body of knowledge capable of performing useful tasks in
and skills; the real-world;
3. The school is entrusted to teach this 3. The school’s duty is to help students
body of knowledge and skills; develop proficiency in performing the
4. To determine if the students have tasks that they will be required to
acquired these knowledge and skills, perform after graduation in the work
the school must test the students on place;
these knowledge and skills. 4. The school must then require
students to perform tasks that
duplicate or imitate real-world
situations.

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