Prof.

Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

MODULE-I
 Need for Protective Systems:
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, etc.,
are required to be operated under both normal and abnormal conditions. The heavy current associated with
short circuits or faults is likely to cause damage to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit
breakers are not provided for the protection of each part of the power system. Whenever fault occurs
somewhere in the system, an automatic protective device is needed to isolate the faulty part as quickly as
possible to keep the healthy section of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a
fraction of a second. If a short circuit persists on a system and damage a part of it. The system voltage
reduces to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators in different
power station may lose synchronization. Thus an unclear heavy short circuit may cause the total failure of
the system.
It is very much necessary to protect the power systems, equipments, motors, generators etc. from
the dangerous fault conditions in an electric supply. Hence it is necessary to have the arrangements with
which all these equipments can be switched on or off under no load or load conditions or even fault
conditions. The collection of various equipments used for the switching and protecting purpose in a power
system is called switchgear. The various components of switchgear are switches, fuses, relays, circuit
breakers etc. The switchgear protects the system from fault and abnormal conditions and assures continuity
of an electric supply. The switch is device which is used to open or close an electric circuit in a
conventional way. The switched can be used on full load or no load condition but it cannot be used to
interrupt the fault currents.
The fuse is a protecting device of simplest form used for protecting cables and electrical equipments
against overload or short circuits. It consists of small piece of metal when excessive current flows through
it, the metal melts and current is interrupted and circuit gets disconnected from the supply. Thus it protects
the circuit from dangerous excessive current. So fuse is used to interrupt the fault current. A relay is an
automatic device by means of which an electrical circuit is indirectly controlled and is governed by a
change in the same or another electrical circuit.
A circuit breakers and protective relays to isolate the fault section of the system from healthy sections.
A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system when it is called upon to do so by the
protective relay. The protective relay is a device which sense abnormal conditions on a power system by
constantly monitoring electrical quantities of the system, which differ under normal or abnormal
conditions. The function of protective relay is to detect a fault and isolate and issue a command to the
circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty element.

 Nature and Causes of Faults

A fault occurs due to the failure of the insulation of a conductor at one or more point or a conducting object
comes in contact with the live part of the system. The transmission line is most prone to faults. If the
conductors of line come in contact with each other or with the ground.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

Causes of Faults:
There are a number of causes for the occurrence of a fault in the power system. Some of the possible causes
of faults are,
 Overvoltage due to switching surges
 Severe lightning strokes
 Aging of conductor
 Heavy wind, rains, and snowfall
 Falling trees on the transmission line
 Excessive internal and external stresses on the conductors
 High changes in atmospheric temperatures
 Accident of vehicle with towers or poles of transmission line
 Perching of birds on the lines
 Accidental short circuit due to string, snakes
 Chemical pollution
There is always the possibility of occurrence of a fault in the power system. Therefore, it is necessary to
protect the costly equipment. Most of the area of power system network is covered by the transmission
lines and it placed in the open air. Hence, due to atmospheric conditions, the maximum possibility of fault
occurrence is on transmission lines.
Most of the faults lead to short circuit condition and because of this, the impedance of the short circuit path
becomes very low and very large fault currents flow.
Thus, it is important to evaluate these fault currents under short circuit conditions. And according to this,
design and select the protective equipment.

 Types of Faults:
The fault in the power system is defined as the defect in the power system due to which the current is
distracted from the intended path. The fault creates the abnormal condition which reduces the insulation
strength between the conductors. The reduction in insulation causes excessive damage to the system. The
fault in the power system is mainly categorized into two types they are
1. Open Circuit Fault
2. Short Circuit Fault.
The different types of power system fault are shown below in the image.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

The faults in the power system may occur because of the number of natural disturbances like lightning,
high-speed winds, earthquake, etc. It may also occur because of some accidents like falling off a tree,
vehicle colliding, with supporting structure, aeroplane crashing, etc.
1. Open Circuit Fault: The open circuit fault mainly occurs because of the failure of one or two
conductors. The open circuit fault takes place in series with the line, and because of this, it is also called the
series fault. Such types of faults affect the reliability of the system. The open circuit fault is categorized as,
 Open Conductor Fault
 Two conductors Open Fault
 Three conductors Open Fault.
The open circuit fault is shown in the figure below.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

2. Short-Circuit Fault:
In this type of fault, the conductors of the different phases come into contact with each other with a power
line, power transformer or any other circuit element due to which the large current flow in one or two
phases of the system. The short-circuit fault is divided into the symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault.

A. Symmetrical Fault:
The faults which involve all the three phases is known as the symmetrical fault. Such types of fault remain
balanced even after the fault. The symmetrical faults mainly occur at the terminal of the generators. The
fault on the system may arise on account of the resistance of the arc between the conductors or due to the
lower footing resistance. The symmetrical fault is sub-categorized into line-to-line-to-line fault and three-
phase line-to-ground-fault.

a. Line – Line – Line Fault – Such types of faults are balanced, i.e., the system remains symmetrical
even after the fault. The L – L – L fault occurs rarely, but it is the most severe type of fault which involves
the largest current. This large current is used for determining the rating of the circuit breaker.

b. L – L – L – G (Three-phase line to the ground fault) – The three-phase line to ground fault
includes all the three phase of the system. The L – L – L – G fault occurs between the three phases and the
ground of the system. The probability of occurrence of such type of fault is nearly 2 to 3 percent.

B. Unsymmetrical Fault:
The fault gives rise to unsymmetrical current, i.e., current differing in magnitude and phases in the three
phases of the power system are known as the unsymmetrical fault. It is also defined as the fault which
involves the one or two phases such as L- G, L – L, L – L – G fault.
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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

The unsymmetrical makes the system unbalanced. It is mainly classified into three types. They are,
a. Single Line-to-ground (L – G) Fault
b. Line-to-Line Fault (L – L)
c. Double Line-to-ground (L – L – G) Fault
The unsymmetrical fault is the most common types of fault occur in the power system.
a. Single Line-to-Line Ground – The single line of ground fault occurs when one conductor
falls to the ground or contact the neutral conductor. The 70 – 80 percent of the fault in the power
system is the single line-to-ground fault.

b. Line – to – Line Fault - A line-to-line fault occurs when two conductors are short circuited.
The major cause of this type of fault is the heavy wind. The heavy wind swinging the line
conductors which may touch together and hence cause short-circuit. The percentage of such type of
faults is approximately 15 – 20%.

c. Double Line – to – line Ground Fault – In double line-to-ground fault, the two lines come
in contact with each other along with the ground. The probability of such types of faults is nearly 10
%.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

The symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault mainly occurs in the terminal of the generator, and the open
circuit and short circuit fault occur on the transmission line.
C. Winding Faults:
All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and transformer windings. In
addition to these types of faults, there is one more type of fault, namely the short circuiting of turns which
occurs on machine windings.
D. Simultaneous Faults:

 Effects of Faults:

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 Fault Statistics:

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

 Zones of Protection:
 An electric power system is divided into several zones of protection. Each zone of protection
contains one or more components of a power system in addition to two circuit breakers.
 When a fault occurs within the boundary of a particular zone, then the protection system
responsible for the protection of the zone acts to isolate (by tripping the Circuit Breakers) every
equipment within that zone from the rest of the system.
 The circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and the rest of the power
system. Thus, the location of the circuit breaker helps to define the boundaries of the zones of
protection.
 Different neighboring zones of protection are made to overlap each other, which ensure that no part
of the power system remains without protection. However, occurrence of the fault with in the
overlapped region will initiate a tripping sequence of different circuit breakers so that the minimum
necessary to disconnect the faulty element

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

 Types of Protection (Primary and Back-up Protection):

The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be categorized into two types
 Primary Protection
 Backup Protection
Primary Protection:
It is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all the power system elements from all the types
of faults. When the primary protection made inoperative for any reason, the backup protection has to sense
the fault and trip an appropriate circuit breaker. There are many conditions when the primary protection
may not operate due to many reasons like,
 Failure in circuit breaker: The breaker cannot operate due to jammed contacts,
 Failure in the protective relay: The relay setting is not properly done. Hence it cannot sense the fault.
 Loss of voltage and current supply to the relay: Protective equipment supplied by DC battery bank. If
there is a fault in this supply, the relay cannot generate a trip command to the breaker.
 Failure in tripping circuit: The tripping circuit used to transfer a signal from relay to breaker. If this
system is failed to operate, then the breaker will not open. So, these are the possibilities for failing the
primary protection scheme.
Backup Protection: Backup protection is provided to protect the elements when the primary
protection is failed to operate due to any reason. Suppose, the back protection is not given to the element,
in this case, if the primary protection failed to operate, it will create serious damage in the power system
network. Therefore, it is necessary to implement the backup protection. The arrangement of backup
protection done in such a way that, the failure in primary protection should not cause the failure in backup
protection. To avoid this, the backup protection is located at a different station from the primary protection.
Generally, the backup protection given to the costly equipment. For cost and economy consideration, the
backup protection is employed only for the protection against short circuit and not for any other abnormal
conditions. But one thing should be noted that, whenever the backup relay operates, it will isolate the large
portion of the system. Because it isolates some healthy parts also. So, it reduces the reliability of the
system.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

One more thing you should keep in mind that, the backup protection must operates after some time delay.
So, primary relaying gets a chance to operate.
When a fault occurs, both the relays have to sense this fault, but the primary relay expected to trip first and
backup will trip if the primary relay is failed to operate.
Types of Backup Relays:
 Remote backup:
When back-up relays are located at a neighbouring station, they back-up the entire primary protective
scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT and other elements, in case of a failure of the
primary protective scheme. It is the cheapest and the simplest form of back-up protection and is a
widely used back-up protection for transmission lines. It is most desirable because of the fact that ít will
not fail due to the factors causing the failure of the primary protection.
 Relay backup:
This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up protection. It trips the
same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this operation takes place without delay. Though such a
back-up is costly, it can be recommended where a remote back-up is not possible. For back-up relays,
principles of operation that are different from those of the primary protection as desirable. They should be
supplied from separate current and potential transformers.
 Breaker backup:
This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus bar system where a
number of circuit breakers are connected to it. When a protective relay operates in response to a fault but
the circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault is treated as a bus bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes
necessary that all other circuit breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a time-delay, the main relay closes
the contact of a back-up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the bus if the proper breaker does not
trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energised.
Example: Consider the remote backup protection is provided by a small time graded relay, as shown in the
figure below. Let F be the fault occur on relay R4. The relay R4 operates the circuit breaker at D and
isolates the faulty section. Now if the circuit breaker D fails to operate, the faulty section would be isolated
by the operation of the relay R3 at C.

The use of the backup protection depends on the economics and technical consideration. The backup
protection usually for the economic reason not so fast as the main protection.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

 What are the Essential Qualities of Protective Relay?

In interconnected Power System network, a good protection scheme is necessary for reliable operation. So,
which qualities needed for good protective relay?
A protective relaying scheme should have certain important qualities such as;
 Selectivity and discrimination
 Reliability
 Sensitivity
 Stability
 Fast Operation
These qualities must have protective relays for better protection of the power system network.
Let’s explain in detail about each quality.
 Selectivity and Discrimination:
Selectivity is the ability of the protective scheme to identify the fault part of the system. It must operate
only for the faulty part without affecting the rest of a healthy system.
Discrimination is the ability of the protective scheme to identify between the normal condition and
abnormal condition. The relaying scheme must operate under abnormal conditions only. Therefore, the
protective scheme selects the faulty part from the healthy system and disconnect in abnormal condition for
faulty part only without disturbing the healthy system.
One more thing to mention here is that the relaying scheme must not operate beyond their protective zone.
If the system is not selective, it operates for the fault beyond its protective zone and unnecessary tripping
occurs. By which it will disconnect large areas compared to a faulty area.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

 Reliability:
It is the ability of a protective relays to operate under predetermined conditions. The reliability of the
protection system depends on the reliability of various components like a circuit breaker, relays, current
transformer (CT), potential transformer (PT), trip coils, connecting cables and many more.
There are many components to operate before the operation of the relay. And the operation of the
relaying scheme is also depending on the component which plays a role in the operation of the relay. The
reliability of the system can be judged from the statistical data but cannot be expressed in terms of mathematical
operation.
Proper maintenance also plays an important role in improving the reliable operation of the system. It is also
depending on the design of the system.
 Sensitivity:
A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds the preset value. This value is
called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate when the current is below its pick-up value. A
relay should be sufficiently sensitive to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick-up value.
 Stability:
The power system network must remain stable under the condition of transient, disturbance, and faults.
The stability of power system is the quality of a protective scheme due to which the system remains
inoperative and stable under abnormal conditions. To achieve stable operation of the system, time delay, a
filter circuit, mechanical and electrical biases are provided.

 Performance of protective relays:

When a fault occurs in a particular zone of the power system, the primary relays of that zone are expected
to operate and initiate isolation of the faulty element. However, back-up relays surrounding that area are
also alerted by the fault and begin to operate. They do not initiate tripping if the primary relays operate
correctly. Information regarding operation of these back-up relays is not available when they do not trip.
The back-up relay operates, if due to any reason the primary relay fails to operate. Though several pri1nary
relays are employed in many protection systems, but frequently only one of the relays actually initiates
tripping of the circuit breaker. There 1nay be no direct evidence regarding the other relays being in a
correct operating mode. The performance of the protective relay is documented by those relays that provide
direct or specific evidence of operation. Relay perforn1ance is generally classified as,
 Correct operation
 Incorrect operation
 No conclusion
Correct operation: Correct operation of the relay can be either wanted or unwanted. The correct
operation gives indication about (i) correct operation of atleast one of the primary relays, (ii) operation of
none of the back-up relays to trip for the fault and (iii) proper isolation of the trouble area in the expected
time. Almost all relay operations are corrected and wanted, i.e., the operation is as per plan and
programme. There are the few cases of the correct but unwanted operation. If all relays and associated
equipment perform correctly when their operation is not desired or anticipated, it is called "correct but
unwanted operation."

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

Incorrect Operation: A failure, a malfunction, or an unplanned or unanticipated operation of the

protective system results in incorrect operation of the relay. The incorrect operation of the relay can cause
either incorrect isolation of an unfaulted area, or a failure to isolate a faulted area. The reasons for incorrect
operation can be any one or a combination of (i) misapplication of relays, (ii) incorrect settings, (iii)
personnel errors, and (iv) equipment malfunctions. Equipment that can cause an incorrect operation
includes CTs, VTs, relays, breakers, cable and wiring, pilot channels, station batteries, etc.
No Conclusion: When one or more relays have or appear to have operated, such as the tripping of the
circuit breaker, but no cause of operation can be found, it is the case of 'no conclusion'. Neither any
evidence of a power system fault or trouble, nor apparent failure of the equipment, causes and extremely
frustrating situation. Thus the cases of no conclusion involve considerable concern and thorough
investigation. It is suspected that many of the cases of 'no conclusion' may be the result of personnel
involvement which is not reported. Modern oscillographs and data-recording equip1nent which are being
used nowadays in many power systems often provide direct evidence or clues regarding the problem, as
well as indicating possibilities that could not have occurred.

 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS:

Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending on the technology used for their construction,
their speed of operation, their generation of development, function, etc., and will be discussed in more
details in the following chapters.

Classification of Protective Relays Based on Technology:

Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following three categories, depending on the technology
they use for their construction and operation.
1. Electromechanical relays
2. Static relays
3. Numerical relays

1. Electromechanical Relays:
Electromechanical relays are further classified into two categories, i.e., (i) electromagnetic relays, and (ii)
thermal relays. Electromagnetic relays work on the principle of either electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction. Thermal relays utilise the electrothermal effect of the actuating current for their
operation.
First of all, electromagnetic relays working on the principle of electromagnetic attraction were developed.
These relays were called attracted armature-type electromagnetic relays. This type of relay operates
through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or through a plunger drawn into a solenoid.
Plunger type electromagnetic relays are used for instantaneous units for detecting over current or
overvoltage conditions.
Attracted armature-type electromagnetic relays are the simplest type which responds to ac as well as dc.
Initially attracted armature-type relays were called electromagnetic relays. Later on, induction type
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electromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their
operation, and hence work with ac quantities only. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or a
permanent magnet) and a moving part. When the actuating quantity exceeds a certain predetermined value,
an operating torque is developed which is applied on the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel
and to finally close a contact to energise the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
2. Static Relays:
Static relay contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, diodes and other electronic
components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay, which compares two or more currents or voltages
and gives an output which is applied to either a slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an
electromagnetic relay which finally closes the contact. A static re]ay containing a slave relay is a semi-
static relay. A relay using a thyristor circuit is a wholly static relay. Static relays possess the advantages of
having low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact trouble,
long life and less maintenance. Static relays have proved to be superior to electromechanical relays and
they are being used for the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-stations. Yet they have not
completely replaced electromechanical relays. Static relays are treated as an addition to the family of
relays. Electromechanical relays continue to be in use because of their simplicity and low cost. Their
maintenance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static relays
requires personnel trained in solid state devices.

Numerical Relays:
In utility and industrial electric power transmission and distribution systems, a numerical relay is a
computer-based system with software-based protection algorithms for the detection of
electrical faults.[1] Such relays are also termed as microprocessor type protective relays. They are functional
replacements for electro-mechanical protective relays and may include many protection functions in one
unit, as well as providing metering, communication, and self-test functions. A big difference between
conventional electromechanical and static relays is how the relays are wired. Electromechanical and static
relays have fixed wiring and the setting is manual. Numeric relays, on the other hand, are programmable
relays where the characteristics and behavior can be programmed. Most numerical relays are also
multifunctional.

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

 Classification of Protective Relays Based on Speed of Operation:

Protective relays can be generally classified by their speed of operation as follows:
(i) Instantaneous relays
(ii) Time-delay relays
(iii) High-speed relays
(iv) Ultra high-speed relays

(i) Instantaneous Relays

In these relays, no intentional time delay is introduced to slow down their response. In these relays operate
as soon as a secure decision is made.
(ii) Time-delay Relays:
In these relays, an intentional time delay is introduced between the relay decision time and the initiation of
the trip action.
(iii) High-speed relays:
These relays operate in less than a specified time. The specified time in present practice is 60 milliseconds
(3 cycles on a 50 Hz system).
(iv) Ultra High-speed Relays:
Though this term is not included in the relay standard but these relays are commonly considered to operate
within 5 milliseconds.

 Classification of Protective Relays Based on their Generation of

Development
Relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on generation of their development.
(i) First-generation relays: Electromechanical relay
(ii) Second-generation relays: Static relays
(iii) Third-generation relays: Numerical relays.

 Classification of Protective Relays Based on their Function

Protective relay$ can be classified into the following categories, depending on the duty they are required to
perform:
(i) Overcurrent relays
(ii) Undervoltage relays
(iii) Impedance relays
(iv) Underfrequency relays
(v) Directional relays

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

These are some important relays. Many other relays specifying their duty they perform can be put under
this type of classification. The duty which a relay performs is evident from its name. For example, an
overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds a certain limit, an impedance relay measures the line
impedance between the relay location and the point of fault and operates if the point of fault lies within the
protected section. Directional relays check whether the point of fault lies in the forward or reverse
direction.
The above relays may be electromechanical, static or numerical.
 Classification of Protective Relays as Comparators:
Protective relays are basically comparators which must be able to carry out addition, subtraction,
multiplication or division of some scalar or some phasor quantities and make comparisons of the input
quantities as de sired. Based upon this principle, the protective relays can be classified as comparators into
the following categories.
(i) Single-input comparator
(ii) Dual-input comparator
(iii) Multi-input comparator
(i)Single-input Comparator:These relays have only one input signal and are also known as level
detectors. Such relays continuously monitor one electrical quantity and compare it with certain constant
quantity, i.e. , a reference or a base quantity which may be the pull of a spring or gravitational force. An
example of this type of relay is an over current relay which measures the current of a circuit and compares
it with a certain preset value of the reference or base quantities. Though these relays are simple in
construction and operation, they have several drawbacks such as (i) they are non-directional, (ii) they are
not reliable because their action depends upon a single quantity, and (iii) they fail to
attain the desired reliability.
(ii) Dual-input Comparator:These relays have two input signals. Such relays measure one quantity
and compare it with another quantity. The typical examples of such type of relays are distance relays and
differential relays. The distance relay measures the current entering the circuit and compares it in
magnitude or in phase angle with the local bus voltage. The differential relay measures the current entering
the circuit and compares it with the current leaving the circuit at the other end.
Dual-input comparators are of two types i.e., amplitude comparator and phase comparator. The amplitude
comparator compares only the amplitude of the two input signals irrespective of phase angle between them,
whereas the phase comparator compares only the phase angle between the two input signals irrespective of
their magnitudes. There is duality between amplitude and phase comparators, i.e., an amplitude comparator
can be converted to a phase comparator and vice-versa if the input quantities to the comparator are
modified. The modified input quantities are the sum and difference of the original two input quantities.
These relays have several advantages and wide applications.
(iii)Multi-input Comparator:Multi-input comparators have more than two input signals and are used
for the realization of special characteristic other than straight lines or circle. These comparators are also of
two types, (1) multi -input phase comparator, and (ii) multi-input amplitude comparator. Multi-Input phase.
Comparator is used for realization o f quadrilateral characteristic whereas multi-Input amplitude
comparator is used for realisation of conic characteristics such as elliptical or hyperbolic characteristics.

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 Automatic Reclosing

Current Transformers (CTs) for Protection:

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Voltage Transformers (VTs)

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Relay Construction and operating principle:

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Electromechanical Relay:Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on

moving parts due to electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. Most
electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction principle of
their operation. Such relays are called electromagnetic relays. Depending on the principle for their
operation the electromagnetic relays are of two types:

i) Attracted armature relays

ii) Induction relays

Some electromechanical relays also use electrothermic principle for their operation and are based upon the
forces created by expansion of metals caused by temperature rise due to flow of current. Such relays are
called thermal relays. Most of the present day electromechanical relays are of either induction disc type or
induction cup type.
Types of electromechanical relays:
 Electromagnetic relays

– Attracted armature relays

– Induction relays

 Thermal relays

Attracted armature relays:

Attracted armature relays are the simplest type which responds to ac as well as dc. These relays operate
through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or through a plunger which is drawn into a
solenoid. All these relays use the same electromagnetic attraction principle for their operation. The
electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element i.e. the armature or plunger, is proportional to the
square of the flux in the air gap or the square of the current. In dc relays this force is constant. The
following are the different types of construction of attracted armature relays.

– Hinged armature type

– Plunger type

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– Balanced beam type

– Polarised moving-iron type
– Reed type
Hinged armature type:

The coil is energised by an operating quantity proportional to the system current or voltage. The operating
quantity produces a magnetic flux which in turn produces an electromagnetic force The electromagnetic
force is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or the square of the current. The attractive force
increases as the armature approaches the pole of the electromagnet. This type of a relay is used for the
protection of small machines, equipment, etc. It is also used for auxiliary relays, such as indicating flags,
slave relays, alarm relays, annunciators, semaphores, etc.

 The coil is energized by an operating quantity proportional to the system current or voltage.
 The attractive force increases as the armature approaches the pole of the electromagnet.
 This type of relay is used for the protection of small machines, equipment etc. It is also used for
auxiliary relays, such as indicating flags, slave relays, alarm relays etc.
 The actuating quantity of the relay may be either ac or dc.
 In dc relay, the electromagnetic force of attraction is constant.
 In the case of ac relays, sinusoidal current flows through the coil and hence the force of attraction is
given by

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It shows that the electromagnetic force consists of two components, one constant independent of time
(1/2KI2max) and another dependent upon time and pulsating at double the supply frequency(1/2KI2maxcos
2ωt). The total electromagnetic force, therefore pulsates at double the supply frequency.

Plunger Type relay:In this type of relay, there is a solenoid and an iron plunger which moves in
and out of the solenoid to make and break the contact. The movement of the plunger is controlled by a
spring. This type of construction has however become obsolete as it draws more current.

Balanced Beam Relays:

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It consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets at its ends. One gives operating torque while the other
restraining torque. The beam is supported at the middle and it remains horizontal under normal conditions.
When the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque, an armature fitted at one end of the beam is
pulled and its contacts are closed. Though now obsolete, this type of a relay was popular in the past for
constructing impedance and differential relays. This type of balanced beam relay has a fixed beam and an
electromagnet (EM) as shown in the figure. The EM has two windings, one is energized by the voltage and
the other energized by the current. Under normal conditions, the pull due to the voltage (restraint quantity)
will be high and hence the contact remains open. When a fault occurs, the current increases, the pull due to
current will be more than the pull due to voltage. This closes the contacts of the trip circuit.

Moving Coil Relays:

The moving coil relay or polarized DC moving coil relay is most sensitive electromagnetic relay. Because
of its high sensitive, this relay is used widely for sensitive and accurate measurement for distance and
differential protection. This type of relays is inherently suitable for DC system. Although this type of relay
can be used for A.C system also but necessary rectifier circuit should be provided in current transformer. In
a moving coil relay the movement of the coil may be rotary or axial. Both of them have been perfected to a
large extent by the various manufactures but the inherent limitation of a moving coil relay remains i.e to
lead the current in and out of the moving coil system which, for reasons of sensitivity has to be designed to
be very delicate. Between these two types of moving coil relay an axial moving type has twice sensitivity
than that of rotary type. With moving coil relay, sensitivities of the order of 0.2 mW to 0.5 mW are typical.
Speed of operation depends upon damping provided in the relay.
It has two types:
a. Rotary Moving coil
b. Axial moving coil

a. Rotary Moving Coil Relay

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It consists of a permanent magnet coil wound on a non-magnetic former, spring, spindle etc. as shown in
the fig. The coil is energised by the fault current. Due to the interaction of the permanent magnetic field
and the field due to the coil, moving torque is developed. Due to this the spindle rotates and closes the trip
circuits. It has negative time-current characteristics as shown in the figure. It has high torque / weight
ration. F α NHIL
where F = Force, N= No. of turns, H=Magnetic Field, I=Current in the coil, L=Length of coil
b. Axial Moving Coil Relay

It has axially suspended coil wound on a former. The coil has only axial movement. When the coil is
energized by the current, magnetic field is developed and this magnetic field is repelled by the already
existing permanent magnet. Due to this, contacts get closed. This relay is more sensitive and faster than the
rotary moving coil relay. This relay has inverse operating time-current characteristics.

Polarized moving iron relay:

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 Prof. Shweta Gadad Power System Protection

Reed Relays :

 A reed relays consists of a coil and nickel strips (reeds) sealed in a close glass capsule.
 The coil surrounds the reed contact. When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is produced which
causes the reeds to come together and close the contact.
 Reed relays are very reliable and are maintenance free.
 They are used for control and other purposes, and also used in protective relays.
 Their input requirement is 1 W to 3 W and they have speed of 1 or 2 m sec.
 They are completely bounce free and are more suitable for normally closed application.
 Heavy duty reed relays can close contacts carrying 2 kW at 30 A maximum current or at a maximum
of 300 V dc supply.

Induction Relays:

Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their application. Their principle of operation
is same as that of a single phase induction motor, so used for ac currents only. Two types of construction of
these relays.

– Induction disc type

– Induction cup type
In both types of relays, the moving element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the induction motor.
The moving element acts as a carrier of rotor currents, where as the magnetic circuit is completed through
stationary magnetic elements. In order to produce an operating torque, the two fluxes must have a phase
difference between them.

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In watt metric type construction, φ1 is produced by upper magnet and φ2 by the lower magnet. A voltage is
induced in a coil wound on the lower magnet by the transformer action. The Current flowing in this coil
produces flux φ2 . In case of the cup type construction φ1 and φ2 are produced by pairs of coil.

There are two types of construction of induction disc relays:

– The shaded pole type

– Wattmetric type

In shaded pole type construction, a C-shaped electromagnet is used. One half of each pole of the
electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band known as the shading ring. The shaded portion of the pole
produces a flux which is displaced in space and time with respect to the flux produced by the unshaded
portion of the pole. Two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc and produces eddy
current in it. Torques is produced by the interaction of each flux with the eddy current produced by the
other flux. The resultant torque causes the disc to rotate.

Shaded Pole Induction disc relay:

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 Robust & reliable Construction

 Time current characteristics are inverse characteristics
 Current setting can be changed by taking suitable no. of turns
 Eddy currents in disc
 Brake magnet to avoid over run
 Used for over current protection
 Used for slow speed relays

Wattmetric type Induction Disc Relay:

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This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to rotate in
between them. The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the electromagnet is obtained
by the flux generated by the two magnets having different resistance and inductance for the two
circuits. The E-shaped electromagnet carries the two windings the primary and the secondary. The
primary current was carrying the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the
windings of the U-shaped electromagnet. The primary winding carries relay current I1 while the
secondary current induces the emf in the secondary and so circulate the current I 2 in it. The flux
φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and the flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet. These fluxes induced
in the upper and lower magnetic differs in phase by angle θ which will develop a driving torque on the
disc proportional to φ1φ sinθ. The most important feature of the relay is that opening can control their
operation or close the secondary winding circuit. If the secondary winding is opened, then no torque
will be developed, and thus relay can be made inoperative.

Introduction of Cup Relay or Directional Relay:

The operating is similar to induction motor. It consists of a stationary rotor iron core and moving
rotor conductor (cup). The moving element is a hollow cylinder or cup which turns on its axis. The driving
element is a four or eight pole structure placed radially around the outside of the cylinder and joined by a
yoke. To shorten the air-gap, a stationary iron core is placed inside the rotate cylinder. It is a high speed
induction relay since inertia is less the two pairs of coils are displaced by 90o. When these coils are excited,
a rotating magnetic field is produced. The rotor cuts the magnetic field and an emf is induced in the rotor,
which results in a current due to short circuit nature of the rotor. A torque is produced due to the interaction
between the rotating flux and the induced current which causes the rotation of the cylinder. The movement
of the rotor closes the trip circuit. The torque produced is proportional to |I1| |I2| sin α or Φ1 Φ2 sin α, where
Φ1 Φ2 are the fluxes due to excitation currents I1 and I2 of coil pairs and α is the phase difference between
the two fluxes. Due to low weight of the rotor and efficient magnetic system, its torque is found to be three
times that of an induction disc types. As this type of relay has high torque /weight ratio, high speed
operation is possible.

 It is a double actuating quantity relay (current and voltage)

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 Highly sensitive
 High speed
 Steady, non-vibrating torque
 Ration of re-set to pickup is high (above 95%)
 It has operating time less than 0.01sec

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Thermal Relays:

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Static Relay:
The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such type of relays, the
output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc. The relay which
consists static and electromagnetic relay is also called static relay because the static units obtain the
response and the electromagnetic relay is only used for switching operation. The component of the static
relay is shown in the figure below. The input of the current transformer is connected to the transmission
line, and their output is given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the input signal and pass it to the
relaying measuring unit.

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The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector and the logic circuit. The output signal
from relaying unit obtains only when the signal reaches the threshold value. The output of the relaying
measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.

The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the output devices. The output device activates
the trip coil only when the relay operates. The output is obtained from the output devices only when the
measurand has the well-defined value. The output device is activated and gives the tripping command to
the trip circuit. The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The other physical quantities
like heat temperature etc. is first converted into the analogue and digital electrical signal and then act as an
input for the relay.

Advantages of Static Relay:

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Limitations of Static Relay:

Numerical relays: With the tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware technology,
microprocessors that appeared in the seventies have evolved and made remarkable progress in recent years.
Fast and sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers. and digital signal processors (DSPs) are available
today at low prices. Their application to power system protection have resulted in the availability of
compact, faster more accurate, flexible and reliable protective relays, as compared to the conventional
ones.

Numerical relavs which are based on numerical (digital) devices e.g. microprocessors, microcontrollers.
DSPs etc. are the latest development in the area of power system protection. In these relays, the analog
current and voltage signals monitored through primary transducers (CTS and VTs) are conditioned,
sampled at specified instants of time and converted to digital form for numerical manipulation, display and
recording. Thus, numerical relays, having monitored the current and voltage signals through transducers,
acquire the sequential samples of these ac quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the data
acquisition system, and process the data numerically using an algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants
and make trip decisions. With the continuous reduction in digital circuit costs and increases in their
functionality, considerable cost-benefit improvement ensues. At present microprocessor/microcontroller-
based numerical relays are widely used. There is a growing trend to develop and use numerical relays for
the protection of various components of the modern complex power system. Numerical relaying has
become a viable alternative to the traditional relaying systems employing electromechanical and static
relays. Intelligent numerical relays using artificial intelligence techniques such as artificial neural networks
(ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems are presently under active research and development stage. The main
features of numerical relays are their economy, compactness, flexibility reliability, self-monitoring and
self-checking capability, adaptive capability, multiple functions, metering and communication facilities,
low burden on transducers (instrument transformers) and improved performance over conventional relays.

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