1.

Use of rulers and measuring cylinders to find length or volume:

●​ Rulers: Rulers are used to measure the length of an object, typically in centimeters (cm) or
millimeters (mm). The object is aligned with the zero mark on the ruler, and the measurement is
taken from the starting to the endpoint of the object.
●​ Measuring Cylinders: These are used to find the volume of a liquid. The liquid is poured into the
cylinder, and the volume is read at the bottom of the meniscus (the curved surface of the liquid),
typically in milliliters (mL).

2. Measuring time intervals using clocks and digital timers:

●​ Clocks: Analog or digital clocks ca n be used to measure longer time intervals, such as minutes or
hours. These are useful for measuring the duration of larger-scale events.
●​ Digital Timers: Digital timers are used for more precise time intervals, especially in experiments
where accuracy to the nearest second or millisecond is necessary. You start and stop the timer at
the beginning and end of the event to measure the duration.

3. Determining an average value for small distances or short time intervals:

●​ Small Distance: To find an accurate measurement of a small distance, you can measure multiples
of the distance (e.g., the length of several objects) and then divide the total distance by the
number of objects.
●​ Short Time Intervals (e.g., Pendulum Oscillations): For short intervals like the period of a
pendulum, you measure the time for multiple oscillations and then divide the total time by the
number of oscillations to determine the average period.

4. Scalar vs. Vector Quantities:

●​ Scalar Quantity: A scalar quantity has only magnitude (size) and no direction. It is described by
a numerical value alone.
●​ Vector Quantity: A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. It requires both a number
and a direction for its complete description.

Here’s a breakdown of the concepts you're asking about:

1. Use of rulers and measuring cylinders to find length or volume:

●​ Rulers: Rulers are used to measure the length of an object, typically in centimeters (cm) or
millimeters (mm). The object is aligned with the zero mark on the ruler, and the measurement is
taken from the starting to the endpoint of the object.
 ●​ Measuring Cylinders: These are used to find the volume of a liquid. The liquid is poured into the
cylinder, and the volume is read at the bottom of the meniscus (the curved surface of the liquid),
typically in milliliters (mL).

2. Measuring time intervals using clocks and digital timers:

●​ Clocks: Analog or digital clocks can be used to measure longer time intervals, such as minutes or
hours. These are useful for measuring the duration of larger-scale events.
●​ Digital Timers: Digital timers are used for more precise time intervals, especially in experiments
where accuracy to the nearest second or millisecond is necessary. You start and stop the timer at
the beginning and end of the event to measure the duration.

3. Determining an average value for small distances or short time intervals:

●​ Small Distance: To find an accurate measurement of a small distance, you can measure multiples
of the distance (e.g., the length of several objects) and then divide the total distance by the
number of objects.
●​ Short Time Intervals (e.g., Pendulum Oscillations): For short intervals like the period of a
pendulum, you measure the time for multiple oscillations and then divide the total time by the
number of oscillations to determine the average period.

4. Scalar vs. Vector Quantities:

●​ Scalar Quantity: A scalar quantity has only magnitude (size) and no direction. It is described by
a numerical value alone.
●​ Vector Quantity: A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. It requires both a number
and a direction for its complete description.

5. Scalar Quantities:

●​ Examples of scalar quantities:

○​ Distance: The length of a path between two points.
○​ Speed: The rate at which an object moves, without considering direction.
○​ Time: The duration of an event.
○​ Mass: The amount of matter in an object.
○​ Energy: The capacity to do work.
○​ Temperature: The measure of thermal energy.

6. Vector Quantities:

●​ Examples of vector quantities:

○​ Force: A push or pull acting on an object, described by both magnitude and direction.
 ○​ Weight: The force of gravity on an object (a vector due to its directional component
toward Earth’s center).
○​ Velocity: Speed in a specific direction.
○​ Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity, with a direction.
○​ Momentum: The product of mass and velocity, indicating the quantity of motion an
object has in a specific direction.
○​ Electric Field Strength: The force per unit charge in a field.
○​ Gravitational Field Strength: The force per unit mass in a gravitational field.

7. Resultant of Two Vectors at Right Angles:

●​ Calculation: If two vectors are at right angles, you can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the
resultant vector (magnitude):
2 2
○​ 𝑅 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 )
○​ Where R is the resultant, and Aand B are the magnitudes of the two vectors.
●​ Graphically: Vectors can be represented on a graph as arrows. To find the resultant of two
vectors, you draw the vectors to scale and complete the parallelogram or triangle to determine the
resultant. The length of the diagonal gives the magnitude, and its direction is the angle with
respect to one of the vectors.
○​ More commonly known as tail to tip method

1.2 Motion

1. Define speed as distance travelled per unit time; recall and use the equation:

●​ Speed (v) is defined as the distance (s) travelled per unit of time (t). The equation is: v=stv =
\frac{s}{t}v=ts​where vvv is the speed, sss is the distance, and ttt is the time taken.

2. Define velocity as speed in a given direction:

●​ Velocity is the rate of change of displacement in a specific direction. It’s essentially speed
with a direction, making it a vector quantity. For example, if a car moves 50 km/h north,
that’s its velocity.

3. Equation for average speed:

●​ The average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the total time taken. The
equation is: Average speed=Total distance travelledTotal time taken\text{Average speed} =
\frac{\text{Total distance travelled}}{\text{Total time taken}}Average speed=Total time
takenTotal distance travelled​

4. Sketch, plot, and interpret distance–time and speed–time graphs:

 ●​ Distance-time graph: The slope (gradient) of this graph gives the speed of the object. A
straight line means constant speed; a horizontal line means the object is stationary.
●​ Speed-time graph: The slope of this graph gives the acceleration. A flat line shows constant
speed, and the area under the graph represents the distance travelled.

5. Interpret a distance–time or speed–time graph:

●​ At rest: On a distance–time graph, the line will be horizontal. On a speed–time graph, the
speed will be zero.
●​ Moving with constant speed: On a distance–time graph, the line is straight and sloped. On a
speed–time graph, the line will be horizontal but not on the zero axis.
●​ Accelerating: On a distance–time graph, the line will curve upwards. On a speed–time
graph, the line slopes upward.
●​ Decelerating: On a distance–time graph, the line will curve downwards. On a speed–time
graph, the line slopes downward.

6. Calculate speed from the gradient of a straight-line section of a distance–time

graph:

●​ The gradient (slope) of a straight-line section of a distance–time graph gives the speed:
Speed=Change in distanceChange in time\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Change in
distance}}{\text{Change in time}}Speed=Change in timeChange in distance​

7. Calculate the area under a speed–time graph to determine the distance travelled
for motion with constant speed or constant acceleration:

●​ The area under the curve of a speed–time graph gives the total distance travelled. For
motion with constant speed, this area forms a rectangle. For constant acceleration, it forms
a triangle. Use geometry to calculate these areas.

8. State that the acceleration of free fall (g) for an object near the surface of the
Earth is approximately constant and about 9.8 m/s²:

●​ The acceleration due to gravity, ggg, is approximately 9.8 m/s² near the Earth’s surface.
This means any object in free fall accelerates at this rate, regardless of its mass (ignoring air
resistance).

9. Define acceleration as change in velocity per unit time; recall and use the
equation:
 ●​ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity per unit of time. The equation is: a=ΔvΔta =
\frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t}a=ΔtΔv​where aaa is the acceleration, Δv\Delta vΔv is the change in
velocity, and Δt\Delta tΔt is the time interval.

10. Interpret speed–time graphs for constant and changing acceleration:

●​ Constant acceleration: On a speed–time graph, the line will have a constant slope.
●​ Changing acceleration: The slope of the speed–time graph will change. If the line curves, the
acceleration is not constant.

11. Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed–time graph:

●​ The gradient of a speed–time graph gives the acceleration: Acceleration=Change in

speedChange in time\text{Acceleration} = \frac{\text{Change in speed}}{\text{Change in
time}}Acceleration=Change in timeChange in speed​

12. Know that deceleration is a negative acceleration and use this in calculations:

●​ Deceleration refers to a decrease in speed, which is negative acceleration. When calculating,

deceleration will be represented by a negative value.

13. Describe motion in a uniform gravitational field with and without air resistance
(including terminal velocity):

●​ Without air resistance: Objects fall freely under the influence of gravity, accelerating at
9.8 m/s29.8 \, \text{m/s}^29.8m/s2.
●​ With air resistance: As an object falls, air resistance increases until it balances the
gravitational force. At this point, the object reaches terminal velocity—the constant speed at
which the forces of gravity and air resistance are equal.

1.3 Mass and weight

1. Mass as a measure of the quantity of matter in an object:

●​ Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object, and it remains constant regardless
of the object’s location or the force acting on it. It is measured in kilograms (kg) and is
independent of gravity. Mass is intrinsic to the object, whether it is at rest or moving, and
does not change with the observer's position.

2. Weight as the gravitational force on an object with mass:

●​ Weight is the force exerted on a mass due to gravity. It depends on both the mass of the
object and the gravitational field strength of the planet or celestial body the object is on.
 Unlike mass, weight can vary depending on the gravitational field. The equation for weight
is: W=m×gW = m \times gW=m×g where WWW is weight (in newtons, N), mmm is mass (in
kilograms, kg), and ggg is the gravitational field strength (in m/s²).

3. Gravitational field strength and the equation g=Wmg = \frac{W}{m}g=mW​:

●​ Gravitational field strength (g) is the force acting on a unit mass in a gravitational field. It is
also equivalent to the acceleration due to gravity (free fall). The equation for gravitational
field strength is: g=Wmg = \frac{W}{m}g=mW​where ggg is the gravitational field strength
(in N/kg or m/s²), WWW is weight (in newtons), and mmm is mass (in kilograms).
●​ This equation also shows that g is the acceleration experienced by any object due to gravity
when falling freely under its influence, which is approximately 9.8 m/s² near the surface of
the Earth.

4. Comparing weights and masses using a balance:

●​ Balances can be used to compare weights or masses of objects. A balance (e.g., a beam
balance or digital balance) compares the force exerted by gravity on an object (its weight) to
a standard reference weight. In a balance, equal masses will exert equal forces due to
gravity, allowing for an accurate comparison.
●​ Since mass is constant and weight depends on gravitational force, when using a balance in
different gravitational fields (e.g., on different planets), the balance still compares masses
correctly.

5. Weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass:

●​ The concept of weight is the result of a gravitational field acting on an object with mass. In a
gravitational field, the force of attraction between the object and the source of the
gravitational field (such as the Earth) produces the weight of the object.
●​ The stronger the gravitational field, the greater the weight of the object. On the surface of
the Earth, gravity pulls objects toward the center, giving them weight, while in space, far
from gravitational fields, objects experience very little weight (microgravity).

1.4 Density

1.​ Define density and use the equation ρ=mVρ = \frac{m}{V}ρ=Vm​:

○​ Density (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. The equation is:
ρ=mVρ = \frac{m}{V}ρ=Vm​where ρρρ is density (in kg/m³ or g/cm³), mmm is mass
(in kg or g), and VVV is volume (in m³ or cm³).
2.​ Determine the density of a liquid, regularly shaped solid, and irregularly shaped solid:
○​ Liquid: Measure the mass of an empty container, then fill it with a known volume of
the liquid and measure the new mass. The mass of the liquid is the difference
between the two masses. Use the equation ρ=mVρ = \frac{m}{V}ρ=Vm​.
 ○​ Regularly shaped solid: Measure the mass of the solid using a balance and calculate
its volume using geometrical formulas (e.g., for a cube, V=length×width×heightV =
\text{length} \times \text{width} \times \text{height}V=length×width×height).
○​ Irregularly shaped solid: Use the displacement method. Submerge the object in
water in a graduated cylinder and note the change in volume. This gives the volume
of the object. Measure the mass and calculate the density using ρ=mVρ =
\frac{m}{V}ρ=Vm​.
3.​ Determine whether an object floats based on density data:
○​ An object will float if its density is less than the density of the liquid. If its density is
greater, it will sink.
4.​ Determine whether one liquid will float on another based on density data:
○​ A liquid with a lower density will float on top of a liquid with a higher density, as
long as the two liquids do not mix.

1.5 Forces

1.5.1 Effects of forces

1.​ Forces may produce changes in size and shape:

○​ When a force acts on an object, it can cause the object to stretch, compress, or
deform. For example, squeezing a rubber ball changes its shape.
2.​ Sketch, plot, and interpret load–extension graphs:
○​ In experiments with an elastic material (e.g., a spring), measure how much it
extends under different loads (forces). Plot a graph with load (force) on the y-axis
and extension on the x-axis. The graph is usually linear at first, showing Hooke's
Law, where force is proportional to extension.
3.​ Determine the resultant of forces acting along a straight line:
○​ If two or more forces act along the same straight line, the resultant force is the sum
of the forces. If they act in opposite directions, subtract one from the other.
4.​ Objects remain at rest or continue at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a
resultant force (Newton's First Law):
○​ This is inertia. An object will not change its motion (stay at rest or move at constant
speed) unless a net (resultant) force acts on it.
5.​ Resultant forces can change velocity by altering speed or direction:
○​ A resultant force can cause an object to speed up, slow down, or change its direction.
6.​ Solid friction:
○​ Solid friction is the resistive force that acts between two surfaces in contact. It
impedes motion and can generate heat.
7.​ Friction (drag) in liquids:
 ○​ Drag is the resistive force that acts on an object moving through a liquid, like a boat
moving through water.
8.​ Friction (drag) in gases (air resistance):
○​ Air resistance is the frictional force that opposes the motion of objects moving
through the air, such as a falling parachute.
9.​ Spring constant and equation k=Fxk = \frac{F}{x}k=xF​:
○​ The spring constant (k) measures the stiffness of a spring. The equation is: k=Fxk =
\frac{F}{x}k=xF​where kkk is the spring constant, FFF is the force applied, and xxx
is the extension.
10.​ Limit of proportionality in load–extension graphs:
○​ This is the point on a load–extension graph where the material stops obeying
Hooke's Law (i.e., force is no longer proportional to extension).
11.​ Equation F=maF = maF=ma and direction of force and acceleration:
○​ Force (F) is the product of mass (m) and acceleration (a). The direction of the force
and acceleration is the same. The equation is: F=maF = maF=ma
12.​ Motion in a circular path:
○​ Circular motion occurs due to a force that acts perpendicular to the direction of
motion (centripetal force). Changes in the speed or radius of the path affect this
force:
■​ (a) If the force increases while mass and radius remain constant, speed
increases.
■​ (b) If the force increases while mass and speed remain constant, the radius
decreases.
■​ (c) If mass increases while speed and radius remain constant, the required
force increases.

1.5.2 Turning effect of forces

1.​ Moment of a force and examples:

○​ A moment is the turning effect of a force, calculated by multiplying the force by the
perpendicular distance from the pivot. Everyday examples include turning a door
handle or using a spanner to tighten a bolt.
2.​ Equation for moment:
○​ The equation is: Moment=Force×Perpendicular distance from the
pivot\text{Moment} = \text{Force} \times \text{Perpendicular distance from the
pivot}Moment=Force×Perpendicular distance from the pivot
3.​ Applying the principle of moments:
○​ For a beam to be balanced (in equilibrium), the sum of the moments on one side of
the pivot must equal the sum of the moments on the other side.
4.​ Equilibrium:
 ○​ An object is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force and no resultant
moment acting on it.
5.​ More complex applications of the principle of moments:
○​ This involves balancing multiple forces on either side of the pivot to maintain
equilibrium.
6.​ Experiment to demonstrate no resultant moment:
○​ Suspend a beam and apply known weights to either side. Adjust the weights until
the beam is level, demonstrating that the moments on each side are equal.

1.5.3 Centre of gravity

1.​ Centre of gravity:

○​ The centre of gravity is the point where the entire weight of an object appears to act.
2.​ Experiment to find the centre of gravity of an irregular plane:
○​ Suspend an irregular object from different points and draw vertical lines downward
from the suspension points. The point where the lines intersect is the centre of
gravity.
3.​ Effect of the centre of gravity on stability:
○​ The lower the centre of gravity, the more stable the object. Objects with a higher
centre of gravity are more likely to topple.

1.6 Momentum

1.​ Define momentum and use the equation p=mvp = mvp=mv:

○​ Momentum is defined as the product of an object's mass and velocity. The equation
for momentum is: p=mvp = mvp=mv where ppp is momentum (in kg·m/s), mmm is
mass (in kg), and vvv is velocity (in m/s).
2.​ Define impulse and use the equation Impulse=FΔt=Δ(mv)\text{Impulse} = F \Delta t = \Delta
(mv)Impulse=FΔt=Δ(mv):
○​ Impulse is the product of a force and the time for which it acts. Impulse causes a
change in momentum. The equation is: Impulse=FΔt=Δ(mv)\text{Impulse} = F
\Delta t = \Delta (mv)Impulse=FΔt=Δ(mv) where FFF is force (in newtons, N),
Δt\Delta tΔt is the time the force is applied, and Δ(mv)\Delta (mv)Δ(mv) represents
the change in momentum.
3.​ Apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve problems in one dimension:
○​ The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a
closed system is conserved before and after a collision or interaction. This principle
can be applied to calculate unknown velocities or masses in collisions, where: Total
momentum before=Total momentum after\text{Total momentum before} =
\text{Total momentum after}Total momentum before=Total momentum after
4.​ Define resultant force and use the equation F=ΔpΔtF = \frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t}F=ΔtΔp​:
 ○​ Resultant force is the net force acting on an object, and it causes a change in
momentum. The equation for force in terms of momentum is: F=ΔpΔtF =
\frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t}F=ΔtΔp​where FFF is the resultant force, Δp\Delta pΔp is the
change in momentum, and Δt\Delta tΔt is the time interval.

1.7.1 Energy

1.​ Energy may be stored as kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear,
electrostatic, and internal (thermal):
○​ Energy can exist in various forms, such as:
■​ Kinetic energy (energy of motion)
■​ Gravitational potential energy (energy due to position in a gravitational
field)
■​ Chemical energy (energy stored in chemical bonds)
■​ Elastic energy (energy stored when objects are stretched or compressed)
■​ Nuclear energy (energy stored in atomic nuclei)
■​ Electrostatic energy (energy due to electric charges)
■​ Internal energy (thermal) (energy associated with temperature).
2.​ Energy transfer between stores during events and processes:
○​ Energy can be transferred between stores via:
■​ Mechanical work (forces causing displacement)
■​ Electrical work (energy transferred by electrical currents)
■​ Heating (energy transferred between objects of different temperatures)
■​ Waves (electromagnetic, sound, etc.).
3.​ Principle of conservation of energy:
○​ Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or converted from one form
to another. The total energy in a closed system remains constant.
4.​ Equation for kinetic energy Ek=12mv2E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2Ek​=21​mv2:
○​ The equation for kinetic energy is: Ek=12mv2E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2Ek​=21​mv2
where EkE_kEk​is kinetic energy (in joules, J), mmm is mass (in kg), and vvv is
velocity (in m/s).
5.​ Equation for the change in gravitational potential energy ΔEp=mgΔh\Delta E_p = mg \Delta
hΔEp​=mgΔh:
○​ The equation for gravitational potential energy is: ΔEp=mgΔh\Delta E_p = mg
\Delta hΔEp​=mgΔh where ΔEp\Delta E_pΔEp​is the change in gravitational
potential energy (in J), mmm is mass (in kg), ggg is gravitational field strength (9.8
m/s² on Earth), and Δh\Delta hΔh is the change in height (in meters).
6.​ Apply conservation of energy to complex examples and Sankey diagrams:
 ○​ In more complex systems with multiple stages, energy transformations can be
tracked. Sankey diagrams visually represent energy input, useful output, and wasted
energy (often as heat).

1.7.2 Work

1.​ Mechanical or electrical work done equals energy transferred:

○​ Work done is the amount of energy transferred when a force moves an object, or
when electrical energy is used.
2.​ Equation for mechanical work W=Fd=ΔEW = Fd = \Delta EW=Fd=ΔE:
○​ The equation for work done is: W=Fd=ΔEW = Fd = \Delta EW=Fd=ΔE where
WWW is work done (in J), FFF is force (in N), ddd is distance (in m), and ΔE\Delta
EΔE is the change in energy.

1.7.3 Energy Resources

1.​ Useful energy from different sources:

○​ Energy can be obtained from:
■​ Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
■​ Biofuels (derived from plants/organic materials)
■​ Water energy (waves, tides, hydroelectric)
■​ Geothermal energy (from Earth’s heat)
■​ Nuclear fuel (from radioactive materials)
■​ Solar cells (convert sunlight into electricity)
■​ Solar panels (use sunlight to heat water)
■​ Wind energy (powered by the Sun's influence on air).
2.​ Advantages and disadvantages of each method:
○​ Consider renewability, availability, reliability, scale, and environmental impact for
each energy source.
3.​ Concept of efficiency:
○​ Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy output to total energy input.
4.​ Radiation from the Sun as the main energy source (except geothermal, nuclear, and tidal):
○​ Most energy resources (e.g., solar, wind, biofuels) derive from the Sun's energy.
5.​ Nuclear fusion in the Sun and ongoing research on nuclear fusion energy:
○​ Energy is produced in the Sun through nuclear fusion (hydrogen atoms combining
to form helium). Research is exploring how to harness fusion energy on Earth.
6.​ Equations for efficiency:
 ○​ The equations for efficiency are: Efficiency(%)=Useful energy outputTotal energy
input×100%\text{Efficiency} (\%) = \frac{\text{Useful energy output}}{\text{Total
energy input}} \times 100\%Efficiency(%)=Total energy inputUseful energy
output​×100% Efficiency(%)=Useful power outputTotal power
input×100%\text{Efficiency} (\%) = \frac{\text{Useful power output}}{\text{Total
power input}} \times 100\%Efficiency(%)=Total power inputUseful power
output​×100%

1.7.4 Power

1.​ Define power and use the equations P=WtP = \frac{W}{t}P=tW​and P=ΔEtP = \frac{\Delta
E}{t}P=tΔE​:
○​ Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. The equations for
power are: P=WtandP=ΔEtP = \frac{W}{t} \quad \text{and} \quad P = \frac{\Delta
E}{t}P=tW​andP=tΔE​where PPP is power (in watts, W), WWW is work done (in J),
and ttt is time (in seconds).

1.8 Pressure

1.​ Define pressure and use the equation p=FAp = \frac{F}{A}p=AF​:

○​ Pressure is the force applied per unit area. The equation for pressure is: p=FAp =
\frac{F}{A}p=AF​where ppp is pressure (in pascals, Pa), FFF is force (in N), and
AAA is area (in m²).
2.​ Pressure variations in everyday examples:
○​ Pressure increases when force increases or the area decreases (e.g., sharp objects
exert higher pressure).
3.​ Pressure beneath the surface of a liquid:
○​ Pressure increases with depth in a liquid because of the weight of the liquid above. It
also depends on the density of the liquid.
4.​ Equation for pressure in a liquid Δp=ρgΔh\Delta p = ρg \Delta hΔp=ρgΔh:
○​ The equation for the change in pressure at a depth in a liquid is: Δp=ρgΔh\Delta p =
ρg \Delta hΔp=ρgΔh where ρρρ is the density of the liquid (in kg/m³), ggg is
gravitational field strength, and Δh\Delta hΔh is the change in height.