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The document discusses transformations of the independent variable in signal analysis, focusing on the classification of signals based on their energy and power characteristics. It introduces three classes of signals: those with finite total energy, finite average power, and those with neither finite energy nor power. Additionally, it describes basic transformations such as time shifts, time reversals, and time scaling, which are essential for understanding signal modifications in various applications.

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2 views

ss 1

The document discusses transformations of the independent variable in signal analysis, focusing on the classification of signals based on their energy and power characteristics. It introduces three classes of signals: those with finite total energy, finite average power, and those with neither finite energy nor power. Additionally, it describes basic transformations such as time shifts, time reversals, and time scaling, which are essential for understanding signal modifications in various applications.

Uploaded by

rampratap
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Sec.

1 2 Transfomations ol the Independent Variable

Note that for some signals the integral in eq. (1.6) orsumineq. (1.7) might notconverge
e.g., af x() or xín] equals anonzero constant value for all time. Such signals have ininite
energy, while signais with E < o have iaite energy.
In an analogous fashion, we can defioe the time-averaged power over an infinite
interval as

(1.8)
and
+N
(1.9)

in contiouous time and discrete time, respectively. With these definitions, we can identify
three important classes of signals. The first of these is the class of signals with finite total
energy. i.e., those signals foT which E, < 0. Such a signal must have zero average power,
since in the continuous time case, for example, we see from eq. (1.8) that

P, = lim (1.10)

An example of ufinite-cnergy signal is a signal that takes on the value I for 0stsl
and Ootherw ise. In this case, E. = l and P, = 0
A second class of signals are those with finite average power P. From whal we
have just seen, if P. >0, then, of necessity, E = , This, of course, makes sense, since
if there is a nonzero average energy per unit time (i.e., nonzero power), then integrating
or summing this over an infinite time interval yields an infinite amount of energy. For
example, the constant signal xn] 4 bas nfinite energy, but average power P = 16.
There are also signals for which neither Pa nor E arefinite. A sumple example is the
signal x() = t. We will encounter other examples of signals in each of these classes in
the remainder of this and the following chapters.

ANSFORMATIONs OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE


A central concept in signal and system anatysis is that of the transformation of a signal.
For exarmple, in an aircraft control system, signals corresponding to the acions of the pilot
are transformed by electrical and mechanical systems into changes in aircraft thrust or
the povitions of aircraft control surfaces such as the rudder or ailerons, which in lurm are
transfornmed thrvugh the dymamics and kinematics of the vehicle into changes in aircraft
velocity and head1ng. Also, in a high-fdelity audio system, an input signal representing
musc as recorded on acassette or compact dise is modified in order to enhance desirable
characteriscics, to rermove recording noise, or to balance the several components of the
signal (e.g., treble and bass). In this secçon, we focus on a very limited but important class
of elementary signal transfomations that involve simple modification of the independent
Variable, ie., the time axis., As we will see in this and subsequent sections uf this chapter,
these elementary transformations allow us to introduce several basic properties of signals
and systems. In later chapters, we will ind thet they also play an important role in defining
and characterizing far cicher and imporant classes of ssystems.

8 Signals and Systems Chap. 1

1.2.1 ExampBes of Transformations of the Independent Variable


Asimple and very important example of transforming the independent variable of a signal
is a time shift. A tme shift in discrete time is illustrated in Figure 1.8, sn which we have
two signals x[n] and x[n - nol that are identical in shape, but that are displaced or shifted
relat1ve to each olher. We will also encounter tine shifts in continuous time, as illustrated
in Pigure 1.9, in which x(t - to) epresents a delayed (if tg 1s posiivet or advanced (if !u
is negat1ve) sersion of x(). Signals that are related in this fash1on arise in applicatiuns
such as radar, sonar, and seisrmie signal processing, in which several receivers at different
locations observe a signal being transm1ted through a medum (water, rock, air, etc.) ln
this case, the difference in propagation tme fom the point of origin of the transmitod
S:gnal to any two receivers results in a time shift beiwcen the signals at the twuTeccivers.
Asecoad basic transformation of the time axis is that of time reversal. For cxample.
as iilustratcd in Frguroe 1.10, the signal a{-n) is obtained from the signal xn) by arefec
tion aboutn 0(ie.,by reversing the signal). Similarly, as depictcd1n Figurc I.11, the
signal x{-)is oblained from the signal x) by a refilection about = 0. Thus, if x) rep
resents an audio tape recording, thed x(-1) is the same tape Tecording played backward.
Another traTsforraation is that of tine scaling. In Figure I.12 we have illuvrated three
sagnals. x(), x(21), and x/2), that are related by lincar scale changes in thc independent
variable. If we again think of the exapie of x() as a tape recording, then x(21) is that
rocording playcd at twice the speed, and a(t2) s the recording played at half-speed.
Itis often of interest to determine the effect of transforming the independent variable
of a given signal x() to obtain a signal of the form ríat + B), where a and B are given
Sec 1.2 Trans'ormations of the Incependent Vanable

xt

x[-n]
x(t-lo)

Figure f.9 Contnuous-time signals related


by a time shiBt. In this figure <0, so that (b)
x{? 6) is an advanced version af xtt (i.e.
each point in x() occurs at an eadier time in Figure 1.10 (a) A discrete-time signal xn): (b) its retlec
x(? - 4)) tion xf a] about n= 0.

x(2)
ta)

x(-)

x(U2)

Flqure 1.11 a) A cont1nuous-time signal x(); (b) its Fiqure 1.12 Continuous-time signals
reflection x{-t) about t = 0. related by time scal1ing.

10 Signa's and Systems Chap. 1

Example 1.1
Given the signal x() showa in Figure 1.13{a). the signal x(? + ) coesponds to an
udvance ishift to the let) by one unit along the axis as illustrated in Figure 1.13(b).
Specitically. we note that the value of x(tt at t = o octurs in x( + )ale = . For
x(}

(a

1 x(t+1)

1 *(-t*1)

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