Early Discoveries

1. Ancient Philosophers: The concept of elements dates back to ancient Greek philosophers like
Empedocles, who proposed that everything was made of four elements: earth, water, air, and
fire. Democritus later introduced the idea of atoms as indivisible particles.
2. Alchemy: During the Middle Ages, alchemists attempted to transform base metals into gold
and sought the philosopher's stone. They discovered various substances and laid the
groundwork for modern chemistry, even though their theories were not scientifically
accurate.
3. Discovery of Elements: In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, scientists began to isolate
and identify elements. Robert Boyle, known as the father of modern chemistry, defined an
element as a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
4. Antoine Lavoisier (1789): Lavoisier compiled a list of known elements and categorized them
into metals and nonmetals. He is often credited with establishing the law of conservation of
mass and helping to develop a systematic chemical nomenclature.
5. John Dalton (1803): Dalton proposed the atomic theory and created a table of relative atomic
weights, which was one of the first attempts to systematically classify elements based on
their masses.
These early discoveries set the stage for the development of the periodic table by establishing a
foundation for understanding elements and their properties.

Dmitri Mendeleev
 Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian chemist credited with creating the first widely recognized periodic
table of elements in 1869.

1. Organization of Elements: Mendeleev arranged the known elements in order of increasing

atomic mass. He noticed that when elements were listed this way, they exhibited periodic trends
in their properties.

2. Periodic Law: He formulated what is now known as the periodic law, which states that the
properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses. This means that elements
with similar properties appeared at regular intervals.

3. Predictions of Missing Elements: One of Mendeleev's most significant achievements was his
ability to predict the existence and properties of elements that had not yet been discovered. For
example, he left gaps in his periodic table for these elements and predicted their atomic masses
and properties. When elements like gallium and germanium were discovered later, they
matched his predictions closely.

4. Reorganization of Elements: Mendeleev’s table was not without flaws; he occasionally placed
elements out of order based on atomic mass to maintain the grouping of elements with similar
properties. This highlighted the importance of chemical properties over atomic mass.

5. Legacy: Mendeleev is often referred to as the "father of the periodic table." His work not only
organized the elements but also inspired future chemists to further develop the periodic table
based on atomic number, thanks to the later work of scientists like Henry Moseley.
Henry Moseley

Henry Moseley was a British physicist who made significant contributions to the understanding of
the periodic table in the early 20th century.

1. Atomic Number: Moseley conducted experiments using X-ray spectroscopy and discovered
that the properties of elements are more closely related to their atomic number rather than
their atomic mass. He defined atomic number as the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.

2. Reorganization of the Periodic Table: Before Moseley's work, elements were arranged in the
periodic table primarily by atomic mass, which sometimes led to inconsistencies. Moseley’s
findings showed that when elements were arranged by atomic number, the periodic trends
became clearer and more accurate.

3. Moseley’s Law: He formulated Moseley’s Law, which states that the frequency of X-rays
emitted by an element is proportional to the square of its atomic number. This relationship
helped confirm the importance of atomic number in organizing the periodic table.

4. Impact on Chemistry: Moseley’s work led to the modern periodic law, which is based on
atomic number rather than atomic mass. This reorganization clarified the relationships
between elements and resolved discrepancies in the periodic table.

Periodic Law
 Periodic law refers to the principle that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic numbers. This law is the foundation for the arrangement of elements in the periodic table.

1. Atomic Number: The periodic law states that when elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, elements with similar chemical properties appear at regular
intervals or periods.

2. Periodic Table: The periodic table is organized in rows (periods) and columns (groups or
families). Elements in the same group have similar chemical and physical properties due to
their similar electron configurations.

3. Applications: Understanding periodic law is essential for predicting the behavior of

elements and their compounds, as well as for understanding chemical reactions and bonding.

In summary, the periodic law is a fundamental concept in chemistry that explains the systematic
organization of elements based on their atomic numbers and the recurring patterns in their
properties.

Modern Periodic Table

Modern periodic table is an arrangement of elements based on their atomic number, electron
configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
1. Arrangement by Atomic Number: Unlike the earlier versions that were organized by atomic
mass, the modern periodic table is organized by increasing atomic number, which is the
number of protons in an atom's nucleus.

2. Periods and Groups: The table consists of horizontal rows called periods and vertical
columns called groups. There are seven periods and 18 groups in the modern periodic table.
Elements in the same group typically exhibit similar chemical behaviors due to having the
same number of valence electrons.

3. Blocks: The table is divided into blocks based on the electron configuration of the elements:

• S block refers to a specific section of the modern periodic table that includes elements in which the
outermost electrons are in the s orbital.

Location: The s block consists of Groups 1 and 2, which are also known as the alkali metals and alkaline
earth metals, respectively. This includes elements like lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), beryllium
(Be), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca).
Electronic Configuration: The general electron configuration for s block elements is ns^1 for Group 1
and ns^2 for Group 2, where "n" represents the principal quantum number.

• P block refers to a section of the periodic table that includes elements where the outermost
electrons are in the p orbital.

Location: The p block consists of Groups 13 to 18. This includes elements such as boron (B), carbon (C),
nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), and noble gases like neon (Ne) and argon (Ar).
Electronic Configuration: The general electron configuration for p block elements is ns^2 np^1 to ns^2
np^6, where "n" represents the principal quantum number. This means that the p block elements can
have 1 to 6 electrons in their outer p orbitals.
 • D block refers to a section of the periodic table that includes transition metals, which are found in
Groups 3 to 12.

Location: The d block elements are located in the center of the periodic table. This block includes well-
known metals such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and gold (Au).
Electronic Configuration: The general electron configuration for d block elements is (n-1)d^1 to (n-
1)d^10 ns^0 to ns^2, where "n" represents the principal quantum number. This means that the d block
elements have electrons filling the d orbitals.

• F block refers to a section of the periodic table that includes the lanthanides and actinides.

Location: The f block elements are located at the bottom of the periodic table, separate from the main
body. It consists of 14 lanthanides (elements 57 to 71) and 14 actinides (elements 89 to 103).
Electronic Configuration: The general electron configuration for f block elements is (n-2)f^1 to (n-
2)f^14 ns^0 to ns^2. This indicates that the f orbitals are being filled.

Periodic Trends
• Trends in Physical Properties
1. Atomic Radius: The atomic radius generally decreases from left to right across a period due to
the increasing positive charge of the nucleus, which pulls the electrons closer. Conversely, the
atomic radius increases down a group because additional electron shells are added.
2. Ionization Enthalpy: Ionization energy, the energy required to remove an electron from an atom,
tends to increase across a period as the nuclear charge increases, making it harder to remove an
electron. It decreases down a group because the outer electrons are farther from the nucleus
and experience more shielding from inner electrons.

3. Electron Affinity: Electron affinity, the energy change when an electron is added to a neutral
atom, generally becomes more negative across a period, indicating a greater tendency to gain
electrons. It is less predictable down a group.

4. Electronegativity: Electronegativity, which measures an atom's ability to attract electrons in a

bond, generally increases across a period and decreases down a group. Elements on the right
side of the periodic table, like fluorine, have high electronegativity, while those on the left have
lower values.

• Trends in Chemical Properties

1. Valence can change based on the position of an element in the periodic table. Elements in the
same group typically have the same number of valence electrons, leading to similar chemical
properties. For example, all alkali metals (Group 1) have one valence electron and exhibit
similar reactivity.
2. The acidity of hydrides generally increases down a group in the periodic table. For example:
- In Group 16, the acidity of hydrides increases from H2O (weak acid) to H2S (more acidic) to H2Se
(even more acidic). - In Group 17, the hydrogen halides show increasing acidity from HF (weak acid)
to HI (strong acid).
3. Periodic Trends: The acidity of oxides can also be related to their position in the periodic table.
Generally, as you move from left to right across a period, the oxides tend to become more acidic.
For example, the oxides of metals (like Na2O) are basic, while the oxides of nonmetals (like CO2
and SO3) are acidic.
Conclusion
The chapter on classification of elements and periodicity in properties concludes by emphasizing the
importance of the periodic table as a systematic way to organize elements based on their atomic
number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. In conclusion, the classification of
elements and the periodicity in their properties provide a foundational framework for understanding
chemical behavior and relationships among elements, which is crucial for further studies in
chemistry.