SECTION C - CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

Objective 2.4 Describe the Process of Meiosis

 Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half,
creating four genetically distinct gametes (sex cells) from a single parent cell. Unlike
mitosis, meiosis includes two rounds of cell division: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
 Key features:
1. Homologous Pairs: During Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes (pairs of
similar chromosomes, one from each parent) pair up.
2. Crossing Over Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material in a
process called crossing over. This happens in Prophase I and is crucial for
genetic diversity.
3. Separation of Homologous Chromosomes: In Anaphase I, homologous
chromosomes are separated into different cells, reducing the chromosome
number by half (haploid).
4. Separation of Chromatids: In Meiosis II, the sister chromatids of each
chromosome are separated into individual cells, resulting in four non-identical
haploid gametes.
 Importance: This reduction in chromosome number is essential for sexual
reproduction, as it ensures offspring have the correct number of chromosomes when
two gametes fuse during fertilization.

Stages of Meiosis

1. Meiosis I – Reduction Division (Reduces chromosome number from diploid to

haploid)
o Prophase I:
 Chromosome Condensation: Chromosomes become visible as they
condense.
 Pairing of Homologous Chromosomes: Homologous chromosomes (one
from each parent) pair up to form structures called tetrads.
 Nuclear Membrane Breakdown: The nuclear envelope dissolves, allowing
the spindle fibres to interact with chromosomes.
 Crossing Over: While in tetrads, homologous chromosomes exchange
segments in a process called crossing over at points called chiasmata. This
process shuffles genetic material, creating new allele combinations on each
chromosome.
o Metaphase I:
 Alignment of Tetrads: Homologous chromosome pairs (tetrads) align along
the cell’s equatorial plane.
 Independent Assortment: The orientation of each pair of homologous
chromosomes is random, leading to different combinations of maternal and
paternal chromosomes in the gametes.
o Anaphase I:
 Separation of Homologous Chromosomes: Spindle fibres pull homologous
chromosomes apart, moving them to opposite poles of the cell.
 Chromosome Number Halved: Each pole now has a haploid set of
chromosomes (but each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids).
o Telophase I and Cytokinesis:
 Formation of Two Haploid Cells: Chromosomes reach the poles, and the
cell divides through cytokinesis to form two new cells.
 Nuclear Membrane Reformation: Sometimes, the nuclear envelope briefly
reforms around each set of chromosomes.
 Result: Two haploid cells (n) are formed, each with half the chromosome
number of the original cell.
2. Meiosis II – Equational Division (Separates sister chromatids, similar to mitosis)
o Prophase II:
 Chromosome Re-condensation: Chromosomes, each still consisting of two
sister chromatids, condense if they had uncoiled during Telophase I.
 Spindle Formation: New spindle fibres form and attach to chromosomes.
o Metaphase II:
 Chromosomes Align at the Equator: Chromosomes line up along the
equatorial plane of each haploid cell.
 No Pairing of Homologous Chromosomes: Unlike Metaphase I, only
individual chromosomes (not homologous pairs) align at the equator.
o Anaphase II:
 Separation of Sister Chromatids: Spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids
apart, moving them to opposite poles. Each chromatid is now considered an
independent chromosome.
 This stage results in each pole having a complete haploid set of
chromosomes.
o Telophase II and Cytokinesis:
 Formation of Four Haploid Cells: The nuclear envelope reforms around
each set of chromosomes, and the cell divides through cytokinesis.
 Result: Four genetically distinct haploid cells (gametes) are produced, each
with a unique combination of alleles due to crossing over and independent
assortment.
Key Features of Meiosis Leading to Genetic Diversity

1. Crossing Over (Prophase I):

o Homologous chromosomes exchange segments, introducing new allele combinations
on each chromosome.
o This exchange creates genetically unique chromatids, ensuring each gamete is
different.
2. Independent Assortment (Metaphase I):
o The orientation of each homologous pair along the equatorial plane is random.
o Each gamete receives a different combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes,
increasing genetic variability.
3. Reduction of Chromosome Number (Anaphase I):
o Homologous chromosomes are separated, halving the chromosome number in each
resulting cell.
o This reduction is crucial because it ensures that fertilization restores the diploid
chromosome number.

Importance of Meiosis

1. Genetic Diversity:
o The processes of crossing over and independent assortment introduce genetic
variation, which is essential for evolution and adaptation.
o Genetic diversity enhances a population’s ability to survive changes in the
environment, as there’s a higher chance that some individuals will have traits suitable
for survival.
2. Maintaining Chromosome Number Across Generations:
o By reducing the chromosome number in gametes, meiosis ensures that the diploid
chromosome number is restored in the offspring.
o This prevents chromosome doubling in each generation, maintaining genetic stability
within a species.
3. Basis of Sexual Reproduction:
 o Meiosis produces genetically unique gametes that combine during fertilization,
resulting in offspring with a mix of parental traits.
o This diversity is beneficial for the survival of species in changing environments and
forms the basis of natural selection.

Summary Table for Meiosis Stages

Stage Key Events Outcome

Chromosomes condense, homologous pairs form Genetic recombination through crossing

Prophase I
tetrads, crossing over occurs. over.

Tetrads align at the equator, independent Random distribution of maternal/paternal

Metaphase I
assortment takes place. chromosomes.

Homologous chromosomes separate, moving to

Anaphase I Chromosome number reduced by half.
opposite poles.

The nuclear membrane reforms (in some species),

Telophase I Two haploid cells formed.
and the cell divides by cytokinesis.

Prophase II Chromosomes re-condense, spindle fibres attach. Prepares cells for division of chromatids.

Chromosomes align individually at the equator

Metaphase II Ensures each daughter cell receives a copy.
(no pairing).

Chromatids become individual

Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate to opposite poles.
chromosomes.

Telophase II Nuclear membrane reforms, cytokinesis occurs. Four genetically unique haploid cells formed.

Objective 2.5 State the Importance of Halving Chromosome Number in the Formation
of Gametes

 Gametes (sperm and egg cells in animals, pollen and ovules in plants) must contain
half the usual number of chromosomes, a condition known as haploidy (n).
 Purpose:
o Halving the chromosome number prevents a doubling in chromosome number
each generation. When two haploid gametes fuse during fertilization, they
restore the full chromosome number (diploid, 2n).
o This ensures the stability of the species’ chromosome number across
generations.
 Outcome: By maintaining a stable chromosome number, organisms preserve genetic
continuity and balance through successive generations.
Objective 2.6 Explain the Role of Meiosis in the Transmission of Inheritable Genetic
Characteristics

Meiosis is a crucial process in the inheritance of genetic characteristics because it enables

sexual reproduction to produce genetically diverse offspring. It does this primarily through
crossing over and independent assortment, which introduce new combinations of alleles
that can be passed down to offspring.

Key Processes in Meiosis Leading to Genetic Variation

1. Crossing Over (Prophase I)

o Definition: During Prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes (one from each
parent) pair up to form structures known as tetrads. As they come together, the
chromosomes may exchange segments of genetic material in a process called
crossing over.
o Mechanism:
 Chromosomes from each parent align closely with each other, with similar
regions of DNA overlapping.
 These overlaps allow segments of DNA to be swapped between chromatids
of homologous chromosomes at points called chiasmata.
 This process results in recombinant chromosomes—chromosomes that
contain a mix of genetic material from both parents.
o Importance for Genetic Variation:
 Crossing over creates new allele combinations on each chromosome,
meaning that the offspring have different traits from either parent.
 It increases the genetic diversity of gametes, which is essential for the
adaptation and evolution of species.
2. Independent Assortment (Metaphase I)
o Definition: Independent assortment refers to the random distribution of maternal and
paternal chromosomes into gametes during Metaphase I.
o Mechanism:
 When homologous chromosome pairs align along the equatorial plane of the
cell, their orientation is random.
 This means that each gamete could receive any combination of maternal and
paternal chromosomes.
 The result is that every gamete is genetically unique, containing a different
set of chromosomes from either parent.
o Importance for Genetic Variation:
 Independent assortment significantly increases the number of possible
genetic combinations.
 In humans, with 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are over 8 million (2^23)
possible combinations of chromosomes in the gametes.
 This random assortment contributes to the genetic diversity of offspring, as
each sperm or egg carries a unique combination of genetic information.
3. Reduction Division:
o Definition: Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division, ultimately reducing the
chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n). This reduction is critical
because it ensures that fertilization will restore the diploid chromosome number in the
offspring.
o Mechanism:
  In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are separated, reducing the
chromosome number by half.
 In Meiosis II, sister chromatids are separated, creating four genetically
distinct haploid cells.
o Importance for Genetic Transmission:
 Reduction in chromosome number allows for the combination of genetic
material from both parents during fertilization without doubling the
chromosome number.
 This ensures that each generation has a stable and correct number of
chromosomes, preventing genetic imbalances that could cause developmental
issues.

Benefits of Genetic Variation through Meiosis

1. Increased Adaptability
o By creating genetically unique offspring, meiosis increases the potential for
populations to adapt to changing environments.
o Some individuals may inherit genetic combinations that make them better suited to
survive environmental stresses, diseases, or changes in habitat.
2. Evolutionary Advantage
o Genetic variation is the foundation of evolution by natural selection. In a diverse
population, certain traits may be more advantageous, leading to those traits becoming
more common over generations.
o Over time, beneficial traits accumulate in the population, driving evolution.
3. Health of Populations
o Genetic diversity also helps prevent the risks associated with inbreeding, such as an
increased likelihood of inheriting harmful recessive traits.
o With a variety of alleles in the gene pool, populations are less susceptible to diseases
and genetic disorders, as some individuals may carry alleles that provide resistance.

Summary Table: Mechanisms of Genetic Variation in Meiosis

Mechanism Description Outcome/Importance

Exchange of genetic material

Creates new allele combinations, increasing
Crossing Over between homologous
genetic diversity.
chromosomes during Prophase I

Random distribution of
Independent Results in a unique combination of maternal and
homologous chromosomes into
Assortment paternal chromosomes in each gamete.
gametes during Metaphase I

Ensures stable chromosome number across

Reduction Reduction of chromosome
generations and allows for genetic material from
Division number from diploid to haploid
both parents to combine.
Meiosis and Inheritance of Genetic Characteristics

In meiosis, the reshuffling of alleles through crossing over and independent assortment means
that each gamete carries a unique set of alleles. When fertilization occurs, the resulting
offspring inherit a combination of genetic material from both parents. This ensures:

1. Transmission of Traits:
o Each parent contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup, passing down their
traits in a random combination.
o Certain traits are passed on based on the dominance and recessiveness of alleles,
leading to a variety of possible phenotypes.
2. Expression of New Combinations:
o With meiosis, new combinations of alleles may be expressed in offspring that were
not seen in either parent.
o This variety means that siblings are genetically unique, even though they have the
same parents.
3. Inheritance of Both Beneficial and Detrimental Alleles:
o Meiosis ensures that both advantageous and disadvantageous alleles are passed on,
providing a balanced genetic foundation.
o Beneficial alleles may enhance survival, while detrimental alleles may decrease
fitness; natural selection then acts on these alleles over generations.

Importance in the Context of Heredity

Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from
parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the
offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents.

 Mendelian Inheritance: Meiosis aligns with the principles of Mendelian inheritance,

explaining how dominant and recessive alleles are inherited according to predictable ratios.
 Codominance and Incomplete Dominance: Genetic variation also explains patterns such as
codominance (e.g., blood types) and incomplete dominance, as new combinations of alleles
affect the phenotypic outcomes.
 Transmission of Mutations: Mutations that occur in the germ line can also be passed to
offspring, leading to variations in inherited traits and contributing to evolution.

Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Growth, repair, and Sexual reproduction, leading to genetic

Purpose
asexual reproduction diversity

Type of Cells Involved Somatic (body) cells Germ cells (sperm and egg)

Number of Divisions 1 2 (Meiosis I and Meiosis II)

 Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Number of Daughter
2 4
Cells

Chromosome Number Diploid (2n) - same as the Haploid (n) - half of the parent cell’s
of Daughter Cells parent cell chromosome number

Genetic Makeup of Genetically identical to the Genetically unique due to crossing over and
Daughter Cells parent cell independent assortment

Growth, tissue repair, and

Role in Organism Production of gametes for sexual reproduction
asexual reproduction

Crossing Over Does not occur Occurs during Prophase I

Independent
Does not occur Occurs during Metaphase I
Assortment

Prophase, Metaphase, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,

Phases Anaphase, Telophase (1 Telophase I, then Prophase II, Metaphase II,
cycle) Anaphase II, Telophase II

Homologous chromosomes separate during

Type of Chromosomes Sister chromatids separate
Anaphase I; sister chromatids separate during
Separated during Anaphase
Anaphase II

2 diploid daughter cells 4 haploid gametes with unique combinations

Results in
with identical DNA of DNA

Significance for Maintains genetic stability Introduces genetic diversity, contributing to

Inheritance across cells in the body evolution and adaptation

Summary

 Mitosis is primarily involved in processes that maintain or grow the body's tissues and ensure
cells are genetically identical.
 Meiosis is designed for reproduction and creates genetic diversity, which is essential for the
survival and evolution of species in sexually reproducing organisms.

Mitosis
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Quick and Efficient: Mitosis is a faster 1. Limited Genetic Variation: Since daughter cells
process compared to meiosis, enabling rapid are clones of the parent cell, there’s no genetic
growth and repair of tissues in multicellular variation, which limits adaptability to changing
organisms. environments.

2. Genetic Stability: Produces genetically 2. Vulnerability to Disease: Lack of genetic

identical cells, which is essential for diversity means that all cells in a population are
 Advantages Disadvantages

maintaining tissue integrity and uniform equally susceptible to diseases and genetic
function across cells in tissues and organs. mutations.

3. Essential for Asexual Reproduction: For 3. Limited Evolutionary Potential: Populations

organisms that reproduce asexually, mitosis that only reproduce through mitosis have less
allows for the production of offspring without opportunity for evolution, which can hinder long-
the need for a mate. term survival in a changing environment.

4. Accumulation of Mutations: Errors that occur

4. Supports Growth and Development: Vital
during DNA replication can accumulate over time
for growth from a single-celled zygote to a
since no mechanism like meiosis is available to
fully developed organism by multiplying cells.
reset or reshuffle genetic material.

Meiosis
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Genetic Diversity: Meiosis creates genetically

1. Time-Consuming and Energy-Intensive:
unique gametes through crossing over and
Meiosis takes longer than mitosis and requires
independent assortment, leading to diverse
more cellular energy, as it involves two rounds
offspring. This diversity is beneficial for adaptation
of cell division and complex processes.
and evolution.

2. Enables Sexual Reproduction: Essential for the

2. Risk of Genetic Disorders: Errors in
production of gametes in sexually reproducing
meiosis, such as nondisjunction (failure of
organisms, meiosis allows for the combination of
chromosomes to separate properly), can lead to
genetic material from two parents, resulting in
genetic abnormalities like Down syndrome.
offspring with a mix of traits.

3. Adapts Populations to Changing

3. Only Produces Gametes: Meiosis is
Environments: Genetic variation from meiosis
limited to reproductive cells, so it cannot
increases the chances of some individuals surviving
support growth, repair, or maintenance of
environmental changes, enhancing the survival of
somatic cells in an organism.
the species.

4. Dependency on a Mate for Reproduction:

4. Reduces Accumulation of Mutations: Sexual
In species that rely on meiosis, reproduction
reproduction helps prevent the buildup of mutations
often requires a partner, which may limit
by reshuffling alleles and combining genetic
reproductive opportunities compared to
material from two parents.
asexual reproduction.

Summary

 Mitosis is advantageous for quick and consistent cellular replication, necessary for growth,
repair, and asexual reproduction. However, it lacks genetic diversity, which can limit
adaptability.
 Meiosis promotes genetic diversity, enhancing a species' ability to adapt and evolve in
changing environments, but it is more resource-intensive and carries risks associated with
chromosomal errors.