COASTAL PROCESS

Dr. Sandesh Upadhyaya K

 Wave deformation
When waves are driven from deep to shallow waters their heights and angles
of propagation change due to changes in water depth causing waves to deform
 Wave deformation
Wave deformation may occur due to :-
1. By process of attenuation
2. Air resistance by action of opposing winds
3. Lateral diffraction of wave energy
4. By tendency of wave to overrun currents
Wave deformation
1) Wave shoaling
Wave shoaling
 Wave shoaling
• This phenomenon occurs as the wave approaches shallow water depth
• L decreases and H increases
• As a result wave crest will be instable and water breaks
• Energy and time period of the wave remain same
 Wave shoaling
H= Ks Ho
Where,
H- wave height at any given water depth
Ho – wave height in deep water
Ks – shoaling coefficient
2) Wave refraction
Wave refraction
Wave refraction
 Wave refraction
• When deep water wave crest line strikes the sea bed contours at some
angle, it tends to change its direction and wave crest gets aligned with sea
bed contours
• L, h decreases and C decreases proportionally
• This bending effect is called wave refraction
Importance of refraction
• Refraction along with shoaling, determines wave height in any water depth
for a given deep water wave condition
• The change in wave direction of different parts of the waves result in
convergence or divergence of wave energy and materially effects the force
exerted by waves on structures
• Refraction articulates to the alteration of bottom topography by its effect on
the erosion and deposition of beach sediments
 Wave diffraction

Diffraction of water waves is a phenomenon in which energy is transferred

laterally along a wave crest.
In such a case, the wave curve around the barrier and penetrate into the
sheltered area
Wave diffraction
Wave diffraction depending on the size of the opening
Analysis of wave diffraction
• Standard diffraction diagram have been drawn for different barriers and different wave
approach directions
• These diffraction diagram are commonly utilized in determining the preferred position
for harbour entrance
• These diffraction diagrams become significant in order to study the distribution of energy
in sheltered area
Diffraction diagram
4) Wave reflection
 Wave reflection
• Water waves may be either partially or totally reflected from both natural or
man made barriers.
• Wave reflection is important in the design of coastal structures, particularly
for structures associated with harbour development
• Reflection of wave implies a reflection of wave energy as opposed to energy
dissipation
 Wave reflection
The reflection coefficient
𝐻𝑟
Kr =
𝐻𝑖
Where,
Hr – reflected wave height
Hi – incident wave height
Kr varies from 1 for total reflection to 0 for no
reflection
Wave reflection
Wave reflection
WAVE BREAKING
 Wave breaking
• Wave breaking is a specific mode of wave transformation
• It is the case of instability of some kind in the same way as hydraulic jumps
 Conditions for wave breaking
1. The horizontal particle velocity at the crest exceeds the wave celerity i.e., u > C
2. When vertical particle acceleration is greater than acceleration due to gravity
3. The wave crest angle of wave becomes less than 120°
𝐻
4. The wave steepness > 0.142 tanh(kh) (shallow waters)
𝐿
5. The wave height exceeds the limiting value in shallow water i.e., H = 0.78 h
 ℎ 𝐻𝑜
• In deep water ( > 0.5 ) wave breaking is initiated when steepness >0.142
𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜

• As the waves move into shallow water, the depth of water h also influences the initiation
of breaking
ℎ 1
• In shallow water ( < ) the stability of wave profile becomes dependent upon wave
𝐿 20
𝐻
height to water depth ratio The breaking would occur when = 0.78
ℎ

Water breaking also depends upon wave steepness and beach profile
 Types of breakers
• There are four types of breakers
Spilling breakers
Plunging breakers
Collapsing breakers
Surging breakers
 Surf similarity parameter

tan 𝛽
ξb=
𝐻𝑏
𝐿𝑜

ξ b = surf similarity parameter

𝛽 = beach slope
𝐻𝑏 = wave height at the time of breaking
𝐿𝑜 = deep water wavelength
 1) Spilling breakers

• This is characterized by the appearance of white water at the crests

• They break gradually over a quite distance
• They occur in beach of very low slope with waves of high steepness value

ξ b < 0.4
1) Spilling breakers
 2) Plunging breakers
• Plunging breakers are characterized by curling over the top of crest and
plunging down the mass of water with a crash
• These are associated with steeper beaches and wave of intermediate
steepness

0.4 ͟< ξ b <͟ 2

2) Plunging breakers
 3) Surging breakers
• These type of breakers take place when a sea bed slope is having high
gradient
• In this case the entire water mass gets piled up and the foam is seen on
beach face

ξ b ͟> 2
 4) Collapsing breakers
• Collapsing breakers occur on moderately steep slopes.
• Here the breaking is sudden, the crest form is steep and the foam is seen on lower side
of the forward face and this type of breakers are intermediate between plunging and
surging types
 Wave Runup
• Wave Runup is the maximum vertical extent of wave uprush on a
beach or structure above the still water level (SWL)
Summary
Beach
 Introduction

• Beach can be defined as the portion between the low water of a spring
tide to the upper limit of the Wave Runup
• A beach is a land formed along the shoreline of an ocean, lake or river it
consists of loose particles which are often composed of rock, sand,
gravel, gravel, pebbles etc
Section of beach
 Section of beach
1)Swash zone : It is alternately covered and exposed by wave Runup
2)Beach face : Sloping section below berm that is exposed to the swash
of the waves
3)Wrack line : the highest reach of the daily tide where organic and
inorganic debris is deposited by wave action
4)Berm : nearly horizontal portion that stays dry except during extremely
high tides and storms
Beach profile
 Beach profile
Most of the beaches are divided into 3 components
1. Back shore
2. Fore shore
3. Near shore
Off shore
 Beach profile
A beach profile is commonly developed by the 2 wave climate extremes
I. Calm conditions waves of lower amplitude and steepness
II. Storm waves of high amplitude and steepness
calm wave condition

storm wave condition

 Uses of beach profile
Beach profile data are important in understanding and quantification of
1. Coastal zone processes
2. Planning of beach nourishment projects
3. The functional design of seawalls, piers, groin field, marine waste outfall,
pipeline and other classes of coastal structures
 Beach process
• Beach adopt their profile (both in transverse and longitudinal direction) very quickly
according to the wave climate change
• Position of each sand grains adjust itself to enable the wave energy to get
dissipated with ease
• In fact every beach maintain a dynamic equilibrium with environmental condition
due to characteristics of the sediments on the beach
 Sediment transport

• The in-built driving force for sediment transport depends on the flow and fluid
characteristics like velocity and viscosity
• The mechanism by which coastal sediments are kept in motion which is mainly
due to, to and fro movement of the water particles very near to the bed is
known as sediment transport
Sediment movement in coastal region is divided into
1. Zone before the wave breaks or movement of sediments before wave breaks
2. Zone after the wave breaks or movement of sediments after wave breaks
 1) Zone before the wave breaks
Variables
i. Live wave height
ii. Wave period or wave length
iii. Water depth
iv. Beach slope and sea bed
These are the factors affecting volume of sediment movement
 1) Zone before the wave breaks
As L volume of sand moved

Gradient of the beach sediment transport

Maximum transport occur near breaking point

 2) Zone after the wave breaks
• Sand movement is irregular here (surf zone)
• Sediment transport in the surf zone is the function of wave steepness
• It doesnot depend on h/L ratio

if wave steepness (H/L)>0.013 the sediments starts to travel to the sea

 Long shore ocean current

• It is an ocean current that moves parallel to shore.

• They vary depending on the size, strength and direction
of the approaching swell and the length of the beach
 Rip currents

Rip currents are powerful, fast-moving seaward currents

COASTAL EROSION

D r . S A N D E S H U PA D H YAYA K .
COASTAL EROSION
ULLAL
What is the definition of Coastal Erosion?
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land, or removal of the beach
by wave action
INTRODUCTION

• Natural shorelines are dynamic, they continuously modify shore line

• In the near shore zone, wave energy moves littoral materials in a long shore
direction thus causing coastal erosion

• Shore line stabilization becomes important to protect valuable land from

eroding
EROSION PROCESS
LITTORAL DRIFT

• The transport of material in the long shore direction by

waves and currents near the shore is known as littoral drift
PHENOMENA OF LITTORAL DRIFT

• The orbital paths of water particles are nearly circular till the depth
is half the wavelength and becomes elliptical at shore ward as
shown in the figure
• The velocity and acceleration of particle movement increases with
decreasing depth
• Depending upon the sediment size, wave characteristics and wave
energy exceeds its limits it will break, some part of wave energy
will be transferred to sea throwing the bed material in suspended
form
• If the wave propagates oblique to the shore line the amount of
suspended sediment will move with net current generated by wave
along shore
• This type of sediment movement is called littoral drift
MECHANICS OF SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
EFFECTS OF LITTORAL DRIFT
• Due to littoral drift the sediments are transported along the direction parallel
to the shore in long shore sediment transport
• Due to another component of wave velocity in the direction normal to the
shore transport the sediments in the direction perpendicular to the shore line
is called shore normal currents resulting in ‘onshore – offshore sediment
transport’
• These long shore sediment transport is mainly responsible for the shore line
instability
 Sea wave

Foreshore
shallowing

Frictional drag and dissipation of energy

Energy dissipation Energy remains in wave

Sediment resistance > erosive Sediment resistance < erosive

Stable coast force
force

No change until wave energy No Sediment removed Sediment removed

changes
Further loss of energy
Erosion
Equilibrium Deposition

Coastal morphology
Variation in Coastal morphology
is constant
CAUSES FOR COASTAL EROSION

• Steep storm waves accompanied by strong onshore winds are destructive on

the foreshore
• Coastal erosion is caused by the force of nature, sometimes by man made
structures or by man’s activity of removing the material from the shore for
construction
 CAUSES LEADING TO NATURAL
AND MAN MADE EROSION
Sl. Natural Man Made
no.
1 Rise in sea level Dams, dykes and other coastal
Or any
structures causing rise and
concentration of tides

2 Protruding headlands, reefs, Groynes, breakwaters, jetties

rocks causing down drift causing down drift erosion
erosion
3 Tidal entrances and river Manmade entrances causing
mouths causing interruption of interruption of littoral drift
littoral drift
 CAUSES LEADING TO NATURAL AND
MAN MADE EROSION
Sl. No. Natural Man made

4 Shoreline geometry causing rapid Fills protruding in the ocean to an extent

increase of drift quantity that they change shoreline geometry
radically, such fills are often called bulk
headed
5 Removal of beach material by wind Removal of material from beaches for
drift construction and other purposes
6 Removal of beach material by Digging or dredging of new inlets, channels
sudden outbursts of flood water and entrances. Offshore dumping of materials
SUMMARY
• Sediment budget refers to the balance between sediment added to and removed from
the coastal system
COASTAL PROTECTION
WORKS
Dr Sandesh Upadhyaya
OPTIONS FOR CONTROLLING
COASTAL EROSION

• Do nothing
• Remove the causes for coastal erosion
• Supply sediments to the affected area
• Reduce loads
• Increase the strength
• Bio shield
 CLASSIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

• Shoreline stabilization
• Backshore protection
• Inlet stabilization
• Harbour protection
 SOLUTIONS FOR THE PROBLEMS
Hard
measures Groynes Offshore
seawalls
(structural) breakwaters

Soft measures Bio Beach

Mangroves
(non-structural) shields nourishment
 FACTORS NEED TO BE CONSIDERED IN
PARTICULAR COASTAL ENGINEERING PROBLEM

I. Hydraulic consideration
II. Sediment consideration
III. Navigation consideration
IV.Control structure consideration
 INTRODUCTION
To protect and maintain shore against destructive forces of nature

Different types of coastal protection structures

(Hard measures)

1.Seawalls
2.Bulkheads
3.Revetments
4.Groynes
5.jetties Perpendicular to the shoreline

6.Offshore detach breakwater

 1) SEAWALLS

• Massive and expensive

• Considered only where adjoining shore is highly

developed and storm attack is severe

• Irreversible act because the beach in front is removed

• Rehabilitation because of maximum impact which

weakens the structure
 FACE PROFILE SHAPES OF
SEAWALLS

• Vertical
• Nearly vertical
• Sloping
• convex
• Concave
• stepped
GABIONS
 2) BULKHEADS

• Constructed Parallel to shore line

• Separates land from the water area
• Seawall protect rare side i.e, direct wave action
• Bulkhead primary purpose is to prevent sliding of landmass, major force is earth
pressure
• Secondary purpose protection against damage due to wave action
 3) REVETMENTS

• Situated away from the coastal line

• Built to reduce energy of the waves before they reach the coastline
• Very cheap but need to be replaced frequently
 4) GROYNES
• Usually perpendicular or nearly right angles to the shoreline
• Effective in the portion where there is a good net long shore
sediment transport
• Materials – timber, stones, steel, concrete etc,
 5) JETTIES

• Perpendicular to shore line

• If solid, influences shoreline changes
• Can be used for transfer of cargos/goods
 6) OFFSHORE DETACH BREAKWATERS

• Parallel to the coast

• Series of breakwaters with gaps
• Due to obstruction wave energy will reduce which helps in beach
advancement
SUMMARY
DESIGN OF COASTAL STRUCTURES
WAVE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
 DESIGN OF COASTAL STRUCTURES
Coastal structures are subjected to wave pressure of different levels, varied soil,
environmental and structural conditions thus its design becomes important
 DESIGN OF SEAWALLS
• As suggested, sea walls are massive structures that should be designed to withstand
enormous wave force.
• In addition seawall must withstand the pressure due to backfill
 ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS

Reliable information on the following can be obtained from neighboring ports,

Indian meteorological department, ocean research institute etc.
 Maximum tidal elevation
 Wave characteristics
 Storm surge
 Longshore sediment transport rate
 Currents
 Soil characteristic of the backfill
 Foundation characteristics
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SEAWALL

1)Wave force
2)Crest elevation/Wave runup
3)Stability check
4)Rubble toe protection
5)Revetment design
DESIGN OF VERTICAL SEAWALLS
 CLASSIFICATIONS

• Based on wave action – normal

- oblique
• Based on wave breaking – non broken
- Breaking
- Broken
• Based on wall type – vertical
- inclined
• Based on forces evaluation – empirical approach
- semi-empirical approach
 1) WAVE FORCE
• Wave propagation in shallow water undergo a sequential transformation
• Depending upon the sequence at which structure is introduced, the pressure
or force induced by the wave differs
Assumptions (vertical wall type)
• A simple sine wave is considered (1st order)
• Perfect or total reflection from wall (Kr=1)
• Line of symmetry (ho) of wave profile is above the SWL (3rd order theory)
• The wave pressure is calculated according to 1st order theory. The exponential
variation is simplified by a linear variation. Pressure is max at SWL.

Sainflou’s method for non

breaking waves
• Sainflou (1928) came up with an empirical formula for non breaking forces on
vertical walls

Line of symmetry
ho

where ho = cot h ( )
 Net effect

p2
p2

p1 p1

p2 p1 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Where, p1 = and =
Port Planning
Dr Sandesh Upadhyaya K
CO’s Coastal Engg.
 CO1: find wave parameter at different depths using wave theory.

 CO2: explain the different coastal process as the wave approaches

the coast.

 CO3: identify the reason for coastal erosion and to suggest the
protection work.

 CO4: comprehend different components of a port.

 CO5: calculate the different types of loads, preliminary analysis of

berthing structure and breakwaters.
Harbour
 Harbour is a place where ships could discharge cargo and passengers under
protected condition
 Protected water area

Harbour definition
 A basin of navigable waters well protected naturally or artificially from action
of wind and waves and is situated along sea shore or river estuary or lake or
canal connected to sea
Basin
 Basin is a water reservoir of required area
 It is said to be navigable when depth of water in basin is greater than the
draft required for the largest ship
 Draft is vertical linear immersion of ship below water surface for the ship to
float in stable condition safely
Port
 The term port is used to indicate a harbour where terminal facilities
such as repair shops, landing of passengers, loading and unloading of
cargos, docks etc.
Classification of harbour

i. Classification depending upon the protection needed

ii. Classification depending upon the utility
iii. Classification depending upon the location
i. Classification depending upon the
protection needed
1) Natural harbour :
Natural formation affording safe discharge facilities for ships on sea
coast in the form of basins are called natural harbours
Eg: Bombay and Kandla
2) Semi natural harbours
This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands and it requires man
made protection only at the entrance, other things are the same as that of
the natural harbour and they are provided with detached break waters at
the entrance
Eg : Visakapatnam
 3) Artificial harbour
 Where such natural facilites ar not available, countries having sea board
had to create or construct such shelters making use of engineering skills
and method, such harbours are called artificial (or) man made harbour
 It is an area protected from the effect of waves by breakwaters
Eg: Chennai port
ii) Classification depending upon utility

1) Harbour of refuge

Requirement of harbour of refuge

a) Ready accessibility from the high seas
b) Safe and convenient anchorage against the sea
c) Facilities for obtaining supplies and repair
2) Commercial harbour
Commercial harbour should be situated on coasts or estuaries of big river
They don’t have any emergency demand like harbour of refuge but it should
have the facility of storage sheds for cargo, spacious accommodation for
marine ships, facility of transporting , loading and unloading cargo
It should have good quick repair facilities to avoid delay
Eg: Harbour at Los Angeles
3) Fishery harbour
 These harbours should be constantly open for departure and arrival of
fishing ships
 There should be good facility of loading, unloading and quick dispatch
facilities like railway or roads etc.
4) Military harbour
 These harbour are the naval bases which are meant to accommodate the
naval vessels
 These military harbours serve as supply depots
Eg: Karwar, Visakapatnam and Mumbai have naval bases
5) Marina harbour
 These harbour providing facilities of fuel, food,
showers and washing machines, telephone etc.
 For small boat owners, having temporary or
permanent berths
These marina harbours are further classified as
i) Large marinas – more than 200 berths
ii) Small marinas - less than 100 berths
These marinas provide resort facility , sport, fishing
facilities etc.
 iii) Classification of harbour
based upon the location
1) Canal harbour
The harbour located along the canals for sea navigation and inland navigation
2) Lake harbour
The harbour constructed along the shore of lake is known as lake harbour
3) River harbour
The harbour constructed along the banks of river is known as river harbour
4) Sea or ocean harbour
The harbour located on the coast of a sea or an ocean is called the sea harbour
SHIPS
Berth occupancy

Berth occupancy is the ratio of time the berth is occupied by a vessel to the total
time available in that period.

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑡ℎ

Berth occupancy ratio =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
Layout of harbour
Components of artificial harbour

1) Breakwater 9) Port building

2) Entrance 10) Marine terminal
3) Approach channel 11) Transit sheds and ware
houses
4) Turning basin
12) Pier and Jetties
5) Berth
6) Anchorage area
7) Quay wall and Wharf
8) Dry docks
General requirements and
planning of harbour
1) Site selection
Great care to be taken in selection of site for harbour. The guiding
factors which plays an important role in choice of site for a
harbour are
i) Availability of cheap land and construction material
ii) Transport and communication facility
iii) Natural protection from winds and waves
iv) Industrial development of the locality
v) Sea bed, subsoil and foundation condition
vi) Traffic potentiality of harbour
vii) Availability of electrical energy and fresh water
viii) Favorable marine condition
ix) Defense and strategic aspects etc.
2) Shape of the harbour

While deciding the shape of the harbour the following

principles should be kept in mind
i) Inorder to protect the harbour from the sea waves
one of the pier head should project a little beyond
another
ii) Inside pier heads the width should widen very
rapidly
iii) The general shape of the harbour should be
obtained by a series of straight length and no re-
entrant angle should be allowed
3) Harbour depth

The channel depth is generally determined by the following

formula
D= D1+H/3+D2
D1- draft of the largest ship to be accommodated
D2-allowance for squat
H – height of the storm wave
Thus the harbour and approach channel should be of sufficient
depth to allow navigation at low water when ships are fully
loaded
It must be ensured that there are no obstructions like boulders or
sunken ships about the required depth for safe navigation
Max harbour depth = loaded draft +1.2 m (when bottom is soft)
Max harbour depth = loaded draft +1.8 m (when bottom is rock)
4) Marine survey

 It is necessary to collect sufficient information about the area before

finalizing the layout of the harbour and design of its various components
 Following 2 marine survey are carried and for this purpose
i) Hydrographic survey
ii) Topographic survey
Bathymetry of the black Sea

Bathymetry of the Caspian Sea

5)Harbour planning

The planning of harbour should be carried out after collecting the necessary
information existing at the proposed site. The important facts to be studied
are
i) It is necessary to carry out a thorough survey of the neighborhood including
the foreshore and depth of water in the vicinity
ii) The borings on land should be made so as to know the probable subsurface
conditions on land . It will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly
iii) The borings and sounding should be taken to ascertain the character of the
ground
iv) The nature of the harbour, whether sheltered or not should be studied
v) The existence of sea insects which undermine the foundations should be
noted
vi) The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied
vii) The natural meteorological phenomena should be studied at site especially
with respect to frequency of storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and
minimum temperature, direction and intensity of winds, humidity, direction
and velocity of currents etc.
 Indian codes used for planning
and design of ports and harbour
IS – 7314 :- Glossary of terms relating to port and harbour engg.

IS – 4651 (part 1 to 5):- Planning and design of ports and harbours

IS – 2911 (part 1 to 4):- Design and construction of pile foundation

IS – 9527 (part 1 to 6):-Design & construction

IS – 456 :- Plain and reinforced concrete

IS 1893:- Earthquake resistant design of structures

SP – 16 and 34
 Requirements of a good harbour
1) The ship channels which may be natural or artificial must have sufficient
depth for the draft of the vessels visiting the harbour
2) The bottom should furnish secured anchorage to hold the ships against
destructive wave action
3) The land masses or breakwaters must be provided to protect against
destructive wave action
4) The harbour entrance should be wide enough to permit ready passage for
shipping and at the same time, it should be narrow enough to restrict the
transmissions of successive amount of wave energy during storm
Planning requirement for Navigation
channel
 The design and operation of navigation channel
depends on
1) Water depth (bathymetry)
2) Water level
3) Winds and waves and currents
4) Visibility
5) Salinity
6) Sedimentation and dredging
Structures for repair and maintenance
of vessels
Slipways
 A slipway consists of inclined path of timber or stone upon which a series
of rails are fixed and they run from a sufficient depth of water to the
required height above the high water level
Slipways

 Also known as marine railway

 Slipways are structures where floating vessel are hauled up for hull repairs
 Slope from 1 in 12 to 1 in 24
 Length of slipway not less than 2.5 times the length of largest vessel
 End haul
pattern
Slipways
Broadside(side
haul) pattern
Shiplift
 Graving
dry dock
Dry docks
Floating
dry dock
 i)Graving dry dock
 This is a classical form of dry dock
 It is a channel cut out of a basin or river
 A caisson is placed in front of the opening and water is
pumped out
 As water is pumped out ship is lowered on to the blocks
 Usually made on earthen berms and concrete
 This type of dock can handle largest of vessels
ii) Floating dry dock

 It is a type of pontoon(floating structure) for dry docking ships

 Posses floodable buoyancy chambers and a ‘U’ shaped cross-section
 Walls give stability to dry dock when the floor is below water level
 When chambers are filled with water, dry dock floats lower in water, allowing
a ship to be moved into position inside
 When water is pumped out of the chambers the dry dock rises and the dock is
cleared of water
 Work on the ship’s hull can now take place
BERTHING
STRUCTURES
Dr Sandesh Upadhyaya K.
INTRODUCTION

• Port and harbour structure are constructed along the coast to provide berthing facilities
to ship for loading and unloading of cargo
• The berthing structures are constructed for berthing and mooring of vessels to enable
loading and unloading of cargo and for boarding and un boarding of passenger vehicles
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS

• 120000 DWT, 260 m length, 40 m wide and 16.5 m draft for Coal and iron ore berth
• 80000 DWT, 243 m long, 34 m wide and 13.5 m draft for POL berth
• 80000 DWT, 245 m long, 32 m wide and 14 m draft for multipurpose berth
TERMS
• Quays: a stretch of paved bank or a solid
artificial landing place parallel to the
navigation waterway for loading and
unloading of vessel

• Wharf: a structure built on piles parallel

to the shore of harbor for loading and
unloading of vessel
• Pier: a structure usually open
construction, extending out into the water
form the shore to serve as a landing place,
recreational facility etc. rather than to
afford coastal protection

• Jetty: on open sea coast , a structure

projecting into water
TYPES OF BERTHING STRUCTURES

i)The berthing arrangement can be classified as

a) Along side type
b) Open dolphin type (or) ferry type
a)ALONG SIDE TYPE
b) OPEN DOLPHIN TYPE (OR) FERRY TYPE
ii) The berthing structure can also be classified as vertical face type or open type structure
a) Caisson
b) Sheet pile wall
c) Open piled structure
a) CAISSON
b) SHEET PILE WALL
c) OPEN PILED STRUCTURE
iii) The berthing structure can be classified depending on the type of cargo handled
a) Oil berth
b) Ore berth
c) Container berth
a) OIL BERTH
b) ORE BERTH
C) CONTAINER BERTH
 iv)The berthing structure can also be classified as follows based on load transfer
a) Gravity structure
b) Flexible structure
DIMENSIONS OF BERTHING STRUCTURES

• The min length of berthing structure should be sufficient for mooring the longest ship
expected to arrive
• The min depth includes a bottom clearance equivalent to 10% of the draft of the largest
vessel using the terminal
• The top surface of the berthing structure should be built above the highest water level
CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS

• The various loads acting on the berthing structure are classified as

i) Loads from the sea side
ii) Loads from the deck
iii) Loads from the land side
i) LOADS FROM THE SEA SIDE

• The loads from the sea side includes the horizontal force caused by waves, the force
caused by berthing and vessel pull from bollard
ii) LOADS FROM DECK

• The important loads from the deck are the vertical loads caused by self weight of the
decks, superimposed loads from buildings and handling equipment and horizontal loads
are due to wind force on building
iii) LOADS FROM LANDSIDE

• Horizontal loads are caused from landsides due to the earth pressure and differential
water pressure vertical loads are caused by the weight of filling and superimposed load
on filling
LIVE LOADS
a) Vertical live loads
Surcharge due to stored and stacked material such as cargo, containers and load from
vehicular traffic of all kinds including trucks, railway cranes etc.
b) Truck loading and uniform loading
The berths shall be generally designed for the truck loading and uniform loading given in
table
c) Crane loads
Concentrated loads from crane wheels and other specialized mechanical handling
equipment should be considered
An impact of 25% shall be added to wheel load in the normal design of deck
d) Railway loads
Concentrated wheel loads due to locomotive wheels and wagon wheel in accordance with
the specification in the Indian railway for the type of gauge and service
e) Special loads
Special loads like surcharge due to ore stacks, transfer tower, heavy machinery or any other
type of heavy lifts should be individually considered
BERTHING LOAD

Berthing energy
When an approaching vessel strikes a berth, horizontal force acts on the berth
The magnitude of this force depends on the kinetic energy that can be absorbed by
thundering of system
The reaction force for which the berth is to be designed can be obtained and deflection
reaction diagram of system chosen
 The kinetic energy imparted to a system by a vessel moving with velocity v is
given by

Where,
E – berthing energy N-m
wD – displacement
V – berthing velocity
Cc – eccentricity coefficient
Cm – mass coefficient
Cs – softness coefficient
g – acceleration due to gravity
MOORING LOADS

The mooring loads are the lateral loads caused by the mooring lines when they pull the
ship or along the dock or hold it against the force of wind or current
Force due to wind
The max mooring load are due to the wind force on exposed area on the board side of the ship
F = Cw Aw P
Where,
F – force due to wind in kg
Cw – safe factor – 1.3 to 1.6
Aw – wind area in m2
P – wind pressure in kg/m2 as per IS 875-1964
Force due to current
Pressure due to current will be applied to the area of the vessel below the
water lines when fully loaded
It is approx equal to = w v2/2g per m2 of area
Where,
V- velocity in m/sec
W – unit weight of water N/m3
Breakwaters
Dr. Sandesh Upadhyaya K.
  Breakwaters are structures constructed near the coasts as part of
coastal management or to protect an anchorage from the effects
of both weather and longshore drift.
 Breakwater: artificial offshore structure protecting a harbour,
anchorage, or marina basin from water waves. Breakwaters
intercept longshore currents and tend to prevent beach erosion.
 A breakwater is defined as a hard shore-parallel structure
Definition (occasionally obliquely positioned) protecting a section of the
shoreline by forming a shield to the waves.
From: Ocean & Coastal Management, 2015
 1. Rubble mound breakwater (mound type or S type)
2. Vertical breakwater (wall type or type V)
Classification 3. Composite breakwater(Vertical wall on rubble base or type C)

of breakwaters 4. Floating type breakwaters

5. Special/innovative type breakwaters
  It is a heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubble or undressed stone
 The incident wave energy is dissipated when the waves run over the
1. Rubble sloping face

mound  Energy lost is due to friction, percolation through the porous medium and
due to partial reflection
breakwater  It is comparatively safe and simplest type
 Most widely used in Indian ports
 The seaward slope is flatter usually 1:2 or 1:2.5 and
harbor side steeper of 1:1.5 or 1:2
 Broad base help in distributing the load on a wider
area and thus reducing unit load on he base
 The slope at the head of breakwater is still flatter 1:3
to 1:5
 Damage normally occurs due to poor interlocking
capacity between individual blocks
 Where large size natural rocks are not available
artificial armour blocks can be adopted
Examples for
armour units
Armour unit
 1) Types of S-type breakwaters

i) Randomly placed stones

ii) Multi layered rubble mound
breakwater
iii) Rubble breakwaters with
super structure
iv) Berm breakwaters
  Use of natural material is a big advantage especially when large quantity
of rubble stones are available near the site. This reduces the material cost
 Use of smaller construction equipment
 Less environmental impact due to smaller reflected waves
Advantages of
 Creation of natural reef and the slope of the rubble mound breakwater
Rubble mound provides a suitable place for sea life

BW
Laboratory Hydraulic model tests are very essential for design of rubble mound
BW
tests on  Wave Flume
breakwaters  Wave basin
Slope =1:1.5 1:4/3
1:2
Flap-type
mechanism
CWPRS, Pune
http://cwprs.gov.in/
  Vertical walls of different heights

2. Vertical type  Basic purpose is to Reflect waves

 Small vessels can be berthed
of breakwater
 Well designed breakwater and carefully executed breakwaters
(V- type) needs less maintenance
 Constructed of concrete
 Undulated waves strikes the wall and returns, there
is a drag force on the bottom, tending to erode
away the foundation material
 Vertical breakwaters can be constructed when Sea
bed is resistant to erosion
 Foundation are not subjected to uneven settlement
 If depth of water is more than twice the height of
greatest storm wave
3. Composite
breakwater(Ve
rtical wall on
rubble base or
type C)
4. Floating
type
breakwaters
4. Floating
type
breakwaters
4. Floating
type
breakwaters
5) Special
Breakwaters
Factors  The availability of Rock
affecting  Depth of water
selection of  Geotechnical nature of Sea bed

Type of  Function of Breakwaters

 Technical know – how and contractor potential available
Breakwater
 Design of breakwaters

Typical cross section of Rubble mound breakwater (RMBW)

 Design
Design wave Risk analysis
Water depth
Risk and
Broken wave/non Lower probability
consequences of
breaking wave of failure
failure

Variation in water Risk and

depth along reliability analysis Factor of safety
length of BW

Tidal range and Long-term

Cost
storm surge analysis
Design wave
height
As per
Australian
Bureau of
Meteorology
Q1)The table is Wave height No of
from a short (Hi) in m occurrences (f)
0-0.8 16
term wave data 0.9-1.5 39
recorded over 30 1.6-2.4 50
min duration 2.5-3.1 42
which yielded 3.2-4 27

200 waves. 4.1-4.7 16

4.8-5.6 6
Compute Hmean,
5.7-6.3 3
H1/10, H1/3, Hrms 6.4-7.2 1
H2%. 200
Design of  Based on empirical methods
Rubble mound  Oldest type

breakwater  Cross section is modified according to requirement

 Readjustments and settlements or armours is seen
 Certain amount of damage is allowed
 Method of construction should be considered
 Constructions in stages
  Environmental conditions: Wind, wave and currents
 Degree of Calmness
 Ease of Ship maneuverability
Layout of BW  Littoral drift and effect of construction on coastal geomorphology
 Construction cost and maintenance
 Future expansions

*Physical model studies are performed for these factors

Design Process Feasibility
Study
Preliminary
crossection
Physical
model study
of BW • Technological • Empirical • Failure modes Geotechnical
stability
• Economical formula
(Four stages) • Hydraulic analysis
stability

Design Process is iterative in nature, none of the stages are

independent there is a strong interaction between each stage
  Crest elevation and width
 Concrete Cap
 Thickness of armor unit
 Bottom elevation and primary cover layer
Steps involved  Toe berm for cover layer stability
in design of  Structural head and lee side cover layer

RMBW  Secondary cover layer

 Core
 Bedding layer or filter
 Scour protection at toe
 Toe berm for foundation stability
Hudson 1959
Stability
coefficient (KD)
Crest width

3
Values of layer
coefficient
Multi layered breakwater

Type Overtopping Non

Overtopping
*Typical Three
Primary layer W W layered BW
Secondary layer W/10 W/10 to W/15 in SPM-1984
Core W/200 to W/400 W/200 to W/6000
  Cot 𝜃 > 1.5 I,e. 𝜃 = 33.7 0
 Wave period disregarded
Limitations of  Water depth at toe ht > 1.7 H

Hudson  Crest elevation should be higher than run up

 Independent of storm duration
 No friction regarded
 It is not possible to give a definite KD value due to the following
reasons
1) Interlocking between armour units
Stability 2) Interlocking between layers
coefficient (KD) 3) Function of type of armour unit
4) Type of structure, slope
5) Degree of acceptable damage of armour unit
  Loss of damage of armour
 Movement of armour layer
 Cap movement
 Overtopping causing lee scour
Principle  Toe erosion
Modes of  Foundation failure
failure of  Loss of core material

RMBW
Sines BW
-Portugal
Methods of construction
i) Staging method
ii) Barge
method
iii) End on
method